Advanced fluorescence technologies help to resolve long-standing questions about microbial vitality.

Advances in fundamental physical and optical principles applied to novel fluorescence methods are currently resulting in rapid progress in cell biology and physiology. Instrumentation devised in pioneering laboratories is becoming commercially available, and study findings are now becoming accessible. The first results have concerned mainly higher eukaryotic cells but many more developments can be expected, especially in microbiology. Until now, some important problems of cell physiology have been difficult to investigate due to interactions between probes and cells, excretion of probes from cells and the inability to make in situ observations deep within the cell, within tissues and structures. These technologies will enable microbiologists to address these topics. This Review aims at introducing the limits of current physiology evaluation techniques, the principles of new fluorescence technologies and examples of their use in this field of research for evaluating the physiological state of cells in model media, biofilms or tissue environments. Perspectives on new imaging technologies, such as super-resolution imaging and non-linear highly sensitive Raman microscopy, are also discussed. This review also serves as a reference to those wishing to explore how fluorescence technologies can be used to understand basic cell physiology in microbial systems.

A shift to 50°C provokes death in distinct ways for glucose- and oleate-grown cells of Yarrowia lipolytica.

Based on the observation that shocks provoked by heat or amphiphilic compounds present some similarities, this work aims at studying whether cells grown on oleate (amphiphilic pre-stress) acquire a tolerance to heat shock. In rich media, changing glucose for oleate significantly enhanced the cell resistance to the shock, however, cells grown on a minimal oleate medium lost their ability to grow on agar with the same kinetic than glucose-grown cells (more than 7-log decrease in 18 min compared with 3-log for oleate-grown cells). Despite this difference in kinetics, the sequence of events was similar for oleate-grown cells maintained at 50°C with a (1) loss of ability to form colonies at 27°C, (2) loss of membrane integrity and (3) lysis (observed only for some minimal-oleate-grown cells). Glucose-grown cells underwent different changes. Their membranes, which were less fluid, lost their integrity as well and cells were rapidly inactivated. But, surprisingly, their nuclear DNA was not stained by propidium iodide and other cationic fluorescent DNA-specific probes but became stainable by hydrophobic ones. Moreover, they underwent a dramatic increase in membrane viscosity. The evolution of lipid bodies during the heat shock depended also on the growth medium. In glucose-grown cells, they seemed to coalesce with the nuclear membrane whereas for oleate-grown cells, they coalesced together forming big droplets which could be released in the medium. In some rare cases of oleate-grown cells, lipid bodies were fragmented and occupied all the cell volume. These results show that heat triggers programmed cell death with uncommon hallmarks for glucose-grown cells and necrosis for methyl-oleate-grown cells.

Biochemistry of lactone formation in yeast and fungi and its utilisation for the production of flavour and fragrance compounds.

The consumers' demand for natural flavour and fragrances rises. To be natural, compounds have to result from the extraction of natural materials and/or to be transformed by natural means such as the use of enzymes or whole cells. Fungi are able to transform some fatty acids into lactones that can thus be natural. Although some parts of this subject have been reviewed several times, the present article proposes to review the different pathways utilised, the metabolic engineering strategies and some current concerns on the reactor application of the transformation including scaling up data. The main enzymatic steps are hydroxylation and ß-oxidation in the traditional way, and lactone desaturation or Baeyer-Villiger oxidation. Although the pathway to produce γ-decalactone is rather well known, metabolic engineering strategies may result in significant improvements in the productivity. For the production of other lactones, a key step is the hydroxylation of fatty acids. Beside the biotransformation, increasing the production of the various lactones requires from biotechnologists to solve two main problems which are the toxicity of lactones toward the producing cell and the aeration of the emulsified reactor as the biochemical pathway is very sensitive to the level of available oxygen. The strategies employed to resolve these problems will be presented.

Potential of nisin-incorporated sodium caseinate films to control Listeria in artificially contaminated cheese.

A sodium caseinate film containing nisin (1000 IU/cm(2)) was produced and used to control Listeria innocua in an artificially contaminated cheese. Mini red Babybel cheese was chosen as a model semi-soft cheese. L. innocua was both surface- and in-depth inoculated to investigate the effectiveness of the antimicrobial film as a function of the distance from the surface in contact with the film. The presence of the active film resulted in a 1.1 log CFU/g reduction in L. innocua counts in surface-inoculated cheese samples after one week of storage at 4 degrees C as compared to control samples. With regard to in-depth inoculated cheese samples, antimicrobial efficiency was found to be dependent on the distance from the surface in contact with the active films to the cheese matrix. The inactivation rates obtained were 1.1, 0.9 and 0.25 log CFU/g for distances from the contact surface of 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm, respectively. Our study demonstrates the potential application of sodium caseinate films containing nisin as a promising method to overcome problems associated with post-process contamination, thereby extending the shelf life and possibly enhancing the microbial safety of cheeses.

New insights into the effect of medium-chain-length lactones on yeast membranes. Importance of the culture medium.

In hydrophobic compounds biotechnology, medium-chain-length metabolites often perturb cell activity. Their effect is usually studied in model conditions of growth in glucose media. Here, we study whether culture on lipids has an impact on the resistance of Yarrowia lipolytica to such compounds: Cells were cultured on glucose or oleate and submitted to gamma-dodecalactone. After a 60-min exposure to 3 g L(-1), about 80% of the glucose-grown cells (yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) cells) had lost their cultivability, 38% their membrane integrity, and 31% their reducing capacity as shown with propidium iodide and methylene blue, respectively. For oleate-grown cells, treatment at 6 g L(-1) did not alter cultivability despite some transient loss of membrane integrity from 3 g L(-1). It was shown with diphenylhexatriene and 1-(4-trimethylammoniumphenyl)-6-phenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene that oleate-grown cells had membranes more fluid and less sensitive to the lactone-induced fluidization. Analyses revealed also higher contents of ergosterol but, for YPD- and minimum-oleate-grown cells (YNBO cells), the addition of lactone provoked a decrease in the concentration of ergosterol in a way similar to the depletion by methyl-beta-cyclodextrin and an important membrane fluidization. Ergosterol depletion or incorporation increased or decreased, respectively, cell sensitivity to lactone. This study shows that the embedment of oleate moieties into membranes as well as higher concentrations of sterol play a role in the higher resistance to lactone of oleate-grown cells (YPO cells). Similar oleate-induced increase in resistance was also observed for Rhodotorula and Candida strains able to grow on oleate as the sole carbon source whereas Saccharomyces and Sporidiobolus cells were more sensitive after induction.

Fluorescent probes to evaluate the physiological state and activity of microbial biocatalysts: a guide for prokaryotic and eukaryotic investigation.

Many fluorescent techniques are employed to evaluate the viability and activity of microbial cells used in biotechnology. These techniques are sometimes complex and the interpretation of results opened to misunderstanding. Moreover, new developments are constantly proposed especially concerning a more accurate evaluation of the state of the cells including eukaryotic microorganisms. This paper aims at presenting to biotechnologists unfamiliar with fluorescence the principles of these methods and the related possible pitfalls. It focuses on probes of the physical (integrity and fluidity) and energetical (intracellular pH and membrane potential) state of the cell membrane (bacterial and yeast cells) and presents also other probes (nucleic acids, respiration...) and new technical trends. The specificities of Gram-negative bacterial cells are also discussed.