Surface Refaceting Mechanism on Cubic Ceria.

Polar surfaces of solid oxides are intrinsically unstable and tend to reconstruct due to the diverging electrostatic energy and thus often exhibit unique physical and chemical properties. However, a quantitative description of the restructuring mechanism of these polar surfaces remains challenging. Here we provide an atomic-level picture of the refaceting process that governs the surface polarity compensation of cubic ceria nanoparticles based on the accurate reference data acquired from the well-defined model systems. The combined results from advanced infrared spectroscopy, atomic-resolved transmission electron microscopy, and density functional theory calculations identify a two-step scenario where an initial O-terminated (2 × 2) reconstruction is followed by a severe refaceting via massive mass transport at elevated temperatures to yield {111}-dominated nanopyramids. This significant surface restructuring promotes the redox properties of ceria nanocubes, which account for the enhanced catalytic activity for CO oxidation.

Quasi-degenerate states and their dynamics in oxygen deficient reducible metal oxides.

The physical and chemical properties of oxides are defined by the presence of oxygen vacancies. Experimentally, non-defective structures are almost impossible to achieve due to synthetic constraints. Therefore, it is crucial to account for vacancies when evaluating the characteristics of these materials. The electronic structure of oxygen-depleted oxides deeply differs from that of the native forms, in particular, of reducible metal oxides, where excess electrons can localize in various distinct positions. In this perspective, we present recent developments from our group describing the complexity of these defective materials that highlight the need for an accurate description of (i) intrinsic vacancies in polar terminations, (ii) multiple geometries and complex electronic structures with several states attainable at typical working conditions, and (iii) the associated dynamics for both vacancy diffusion and the coexistence of more than one electronic structure. All these aspects widen our current understanding of defects in oxides and need to be adequately introduced in emerging high-throughput screening methodologies.

Dynamic charge and oxidation state of Pt/CeO2 single-atom catalysts.

The catalytic activity of metals supported on oxides depends on their charge and oxidation state. Yet, the determination of the degree of charge transfer at the interface remains elusive. Here, by combining density functional theory and first-principles molecular dynamics on Pt single atoms deposited on the CeO2 (100) surface, we show that the common representation of a static metal charge is oversimplified. Instead, we identify several well-defined charge states that are dynamically interconnected and thus coexist. The origin of this new class of strong metal-support interactions is the relative position of the Ce(4f) levels with respect to those of the noble metal, allowing electron injection to (or recovery from) the support. This process is phonon-assisted, as the Ce(4f) levels adjust by surface atom displacement, and appears for other metals (Ni) and supports (TiO2). Our dynamic model explains the unique reactivity found for activated single Pt atoms on ceria able to perform CO oxidation, meeting the Department of Energy 150 °C challenge for emissions.

Semihydrogenation of Acetylene on Indium Oxide: Proposed Single-Ensemble Catalysis.

Indium oxide catalyzes acetylene hydrogenation with high selectivity to ethylene (>85 %); even with a large excess of the alkene. In situ characterization reveals the formation of oxygen vacancies under reaction conditions, while an in depth theoretical analysis links the surface reduction with the creation of well-defined vacancies and surrounding In3 O5 ensembles, which are considered responsible for this outstanding catalytic function. This behavior, which differs from that of other common reducible oxides, originates from the presence of four crystallographically inequivalent oxygen sites in the indium oxide surface. These resulting ensembles are 1) stable against deactivation, 2) homogeneously and densely distributed, and 3) spatially isolated and confined against transport; thereby broadening the scope of oxides in hydrogenation catalysis.

Understanding room-temperature π-dimerisation of radical ions: intramolecular π-[TTF]22+ in functionalised calix[4]arenes.

Long, multicentre π-dimers of radical ions are weakly bound and can only be observed in solution at low temperature. However, recent supramolecular approaches induce the extra stabilisation required to preserve them at room temperature, by different means depending on the approach. In particular, π-[TTF]22+ dimers (TTF = tetrathiafulvalene) were detected upon oxidation of a TTF-based calix[4]arene in acetonitrile solution at room temperature, manifesting intramolecular [R-TTF]˙+[R-TTF]˙+ interactions (Chem. Commun. 2006, 2, 2233). In this work, the reasons behind the remarkable formation of these π-dimers in the calix[4]arene, [calix], molecule are unravelled by means of DFT calculations. We first demonstrate that the properties of the π-[R-TTF]22+ dimers are preserved in the [calix]2+. Most importantly, our results show that the π-dimerised and non-dimerised forms of the [calix]2+ are isoenergetic at room temperature, and that the activation energy for this process is ca. 9.5 kcal mol-1. Hence, both forms coexist in equilibrium at 298 K, as the intramolecular nature of the interaction ensures a high reaction rate. The role of the Na+ cation in preventing the π-[R-TTF]22+ dimerisation of the [calix]2+ receptor is also examined, unveiling that this effect is mostly due to the electrostatic repulsion induced by the cation. Finally, we provide a revision on room-temperature stable supramolecular long, multicentre π-dimers of radical ions, a class of systems with great potential as molecular switches.

Entropic contributions enhance polarity compensation for CeO2(100) surfaces.

Surface structure controls the physical and chemical response of materials. Surface polar terminations are appealing because of their unusual properties but they are intrinsically unstable. Several mechanisms, namely metallization, adsorption, and ordered reconstructions, can remove thermodynamic penalties rendering polar surfaces partially stable. Here, for CeO2(100), we report a complementary stabilization mechanism based on surface disorder that has been unravelled through theoretical simulations that: account for surface energies and configurational entropies; show the importance of the ion distribution degeneracy; and identify low diffusion barriers between conformations that ensure equilibration. Disordered configurations in oxides might also be further stabilized by preferential adsorption of water. The entropic stabilization term will appear for surfaces with a high number of empty sites, typically achieved when removing part of the ions in a polar termination to make the layer charge zero. Assessing the impact of surface disorder when establishing new structure-activity relationships remains a challenge.

Formation of Long, Multicenter π-[TCNE]22- Dimers in Solution: Solvation and Stability Assessed through Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

Purely organic radical ions dimerize in solution at low temperature, forming long, multicenter bonds, despite the metastability of the isolated dimers. Here, we present the first computational study of these π-dimers in solution, with explicit consideration of solvent molecules and finite temperature effects. By means of force-field and ab initio molecular dynamics and free energy simulations, the structure and stability of π-[TCNE]22- (TCNE=tetracyanoethylene) dimers in dichloromethane have been evaluated. Although the dimers dissociate at room temperature, they are stable at 175 K and their structure is similar to the one in the solid state, with a cofacial arrangement of the radicals at an interplanar separation of approximately 3.0 Å. The π-[TCNE]22- dimers form dissociated ion pairs with the NBu4+ counterions, and their first solvation shell comprises approximately 20 CH2 Cl2 molecules. Among them, the eight molecules distributed along the equatorial plane of the dimer play a key role in stabilizing the dimer through bridging C-H⋅⋅⋅N contacts. The calculated free energy of dimerization of TCNE.- in solution at 175 K is -5.5 kcal mol-1 . These results provide the first quantitative model describing the pairing of radical ions in solution, and demonstrate the key role of solvation forces on the dimerization process.

The Tetracyanopyridinide Dimer Dianion, σ-[TCNPy]2 (2.).

The reaction of 2,3,5,6-tetracyanopyridine (TCNPy) and Cr(C6 H6 )2 forms diamagnetic σ-[TCNPy]2 (2-) possessing a 1.572(3) Šintrafragment sp(3) -sp(3) bond. This is in contrast to the structurally related 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene and 1,2,4,5-tetracyanopyrazine that form π-dimer dianions possessing long, multicenter bonds.

Electronic excitation energies in dimers between radical ions presenting long, multicenter bonding.

The formation of long, multicenter dimers between radical ions is usually monitored through UV-vis spectroscopy given the characteristic low-energy absorption band that they exhibit, not observed for the parent monomers. In this work, the performance of CASPT2, RASPT2, and TD-DFT methods for obtaining excitation energies of the long, multicenter bonded π-[TCNE]2(2-) and π-[TTF]2(2+) dimers has been addressed (TCNE = tetracyanoethylene; TTF = tetrathiafulvalene). The impact of the active space on the vertical electronic transitions computed at the RASPT2 and CASPT2 levels has been tested against experimentally observed absorption bands. Analogous tests have been carried out for a wide variety of density functionals within the TD-DFT formalism. Our calculations show that whereas CASPT2 predicts very accurate excitation energies for the π-[TCNE]2(2-), the mean absolute error for π-[TTF]2(2+) is higher for CASPT2 than for TD-DFT calculations, whenever pure density functionals or low % HF exchange hybrid functionals are used. Hybrid functionals with high % HF exchange (and thus RSH functionals) conduct to large errors on the excitation energies in both dimers. Furthermore, vertical electronic transitions are also obtained for 100 configurations extracted from a 45 ps molecular dynamics (CPMD) simulation aimed at providing an accurate description of the thermal fluctuation effects of a π-[TCNE]2(2-) dimer in dichloromethane. These thermal effects explain the shape of the experimental UV-vis spectrum, where the lowest HOMO → LUMO absorption presents a broad band and the following HOMO-1 → LUMO absorption exhibits a narrower band.

Orientational preference of long, multicenter bonds in radical anion dimers: a case study of π-[TCNB]2 (2-) and π-[TCNP]2 (2.).

The similar shape and electronic structure of the radical anions of 1,2,4,5-tetracyanopyrazine (TCNP) and 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene (TCNB) suggest a similar relative orientation for their long, multicenter carbon-carbon bond in π-[TCNP]2 (2-) and in π-[TCNB]2 (2-) , in good accord with the Maximin Principle predictions. Instead, the two known structures of π-[TCNP]2 (2-) have a D2h (θ=0°) and a C2 (θ=30°) orientation (θ being the dihedral angle that determines the rotation of one radical anion relative to the other along the axis that passes through center of the two six-membered rings). The only known π-[TCNB]2 (2-) structure has a C2 (θ=60°) orientation. The origin of these preferences was investigated for both dimers by computing (at the RASPT2/RASSCF(30,28) level) the variation with θ of the interaction energy (Eint ) and the variation of the Eint components. It was found that: 1) a long, multicenter bond exists for all orientations; 2) the Eint (θ) angular dependence is similar in both dimers; 3) for all orientations the electrostatic component dominates the value of Eint (θ), although the dispersion and bonding components also play a relevant role; and 4) the Maximin Principle curve reproduces well the shape of the Eint (θ) curve for isolated dimers, although none of them reproduce the experimental preferences. Only after the (radical anion)(.-) ⋅⋅⋅cation(+) interactions are also included in the model aggregate are the experimental data reproduced computationally.

Structure and properties of nitrogen-rich 1,4-dicyanotetrazine, C4N6: a comparative study with related tetracyano electron acceptors.

The crystal structure, redox electrochemical stability, and reaction chemistry of 1,4-dicyanotetrazine (DCNT) has been experimentally characterized. These experimental results were rationalized by the results of theoretical calculations of the electronic structure, spin and charge distributions, electronic absorption spectra, and electron affinity and compared with the results for related the tetracyano electron acceptors tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 7,7,8,8-tetracyano-p-quinodimethane (TCNQ), and 2,3,5,6-tetracyanopyrazine (TCNP). DCNT is made from the dehydration of 1,2,4,5-tetrazine-3,6-dicarboxamide, and because of the unusual deep-magenta color of the dicarboxamide in the solid state, its hydrogen-bonded layered structure, electronic structure, and electronic absorption spectra were determined. The magenta color is attributed to its absorptions at 532 nm (18 800 cm(-1)), and this corresponds to normalized chromaticity coordinates of x = 0.42 and y = 0.31 in the pink/red/orange part of the 1931 CIE chromaticity diagram. In contrast with previous reports, DCNT exhibits an irreversible one-electron reduction at -0.09 V vs SCE (MeCN), and reduced forms of DCNT have yet to be isolated and characterized. In addition, the reactions of DCNT with V(CO)6, Fe(II)(C5Me5)2, and I(-) are discussed.

Multistep π dimerization of tetrakis(n-decyl)heptathienoacene radical cations: a combined experimental and theoretical study.

Radical cations of a heptathienoacene α,ß-substituted with four n-decyl side groups (D4T7(.) (+) ) form exceptionally stable π-dimer dications already at ambient temperature (Chem. Comm. 2011, 47, 12622). This extraordinary π-dimerization process is investigated here with a focus on the ultimate [D4T7(.) (+) ]2 π-dimer dication and yet-unreported transitory species formed during and after the oxidation. To this end, we use a joint experimental and theoretical approach that combines cyclic voltammetry, in situ spectrochemistry and spectroelectrochemistry, EPR spectroscopy, and DFT calculations. The impact of temperature, thienoacene concentration, and the nature and concentration of counteranions on the π-dimerization process is also investigated in detail. Two different transitory species were detected in the course of the one-electron oxidation: 1) a different transient conformation of the ultimate [D4T7(.) (+) ]2 π-dimer dications, the stability of which is strongly affected by the applied experimental conditions, and 2) intermediate [D4T7]2 (.) (+) π-dimer radical cations formed prior to the fully oxidized [D4T7]2 (.) (+) π-dimer dications. Thus, this comprehensive work demonstrates the formation of peculiar supramolecular species of heptathienoacene radical cations, the stability, nature, and structure of which have been successfully analyzed. We therefore believe that this study leads to a deeper fundamental understanding of the mechanism of dimer formation between conjugated aromatic systems.

The origin of the room-temperature stability of [TTF]˙⁺⋠⋠⋠[TTF]˙⁺ long, multicenter bonds found in functionalized π-[R-TTF]2²âº dimers included in the cucurbit[8]uril cavity.

A computational study is performed to identify the origin of the room-temperature stability, in aqueous solution, of functionalized π-[R-TTF]2(2+) dimers (TTF=tetrathiafulvalene; R=(CH2OCH2)5CH2OH) included in the cavity of a cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]) molecule. π-[R-TTF]2(2+) dimers in pure water are weakly stable, and are mostly dissociated at room temperature. Upon addition of CB[8] to an aqueous π-[R-TTF]2(2+) solution, a (π-[R-TTF]2⊂CB[8])(2+) inclusion complex is formed. The same complex is obtained after the sequential inclusion of two [R-TTF](.+) monomers in the CB[8] molecule. Both processes are thermodynamically and kinetically allowed. π-[R-TTF]2(2+) dimers dissolved in pure water present a [TTF](.+)⋅⋅⋅[TTF](.+) long, multicenter bond, similar to that already identified in π-[TTF]2(2+) dimers dissolved in organic solvents. Upon their inclusion in CB[8], the strength and other features of the [TTF](.+)⋅⋅⋅[TTF](.+) long, multicenter bond are preserved. The room temperature stability of the π-[R-TTF]2(2+) dimers included in CB[8] is shown to originate in the π-[R-TTF]2(2+)⋅⋅⋅CB[8] interaction, the strength of which comes from a strongly attractive electrostatic component and a dispersion component. Such a dominant electrostatic term is caused by the strongly polarized charge distribution in CB[8], the geometrical complementarity of the π-[R-TTF]2(2+) and CB[8] geometries, and the amplifying effect of the 2+ charge in π-[R-TTF]2(2+).

Assessing the Performance of CASPT2 and DFT Methods for the Description of Long, Multicenter Bonding in Dimers between Radical Ions.

The performance of a wide variety of density functionals for the description of long, multicenter bonding in dimers between radical ions has been addressed in this work. Results on interaction energies and equilibrium distances have been evaluated through pure GGA and meta-GGA, hybrid, RSH, and double hybrid functionals. Grimme's dispersion corrections have also been assessed. All results are systematically analyzed and compared for the π-[TCNE]2(2-), π-[TTF]2(2+), π-[TCNB]2(2-), and π-[TCNP]2(2-) dimers. The DFT results are benchmarked against RASPT2 calculations based on large active spaces. It is shown that small active spaces do not quantitatively describe the interaction energy curves of these dimers. B97-D3(BJ) turns to be the functional that best reproduces the finest RASPT2 results, while PBE-D3(BJ), B3LYP-D3(BJ), and M06-L also provide satisfactory results.

Keys for the existence of stable dimers of bis-tetrathiafulvalene (bis-TTF)-functionalized molecular clips presenting [TTF](•+)···[TTF](•+) long, multicenter bonds at room temperature.

A systematic theoretical and computational investigation is performed to determine the keys governing the existence, in acetonitrile solutions, of dimers of bis-tetrathiafulvalene (bis-TTF)-functionalized diphenylglycoluril molecular clips (clip2(n+)) that are stable at room temperature for n ≤ 4. Although the experimental structure of these dimers in solution is unknown, electronic absorption studies suggest that they have [TTF](l+)···[TTF](m+) interactions that are preserved at room temperature (note that when l = m = 1 these interactions become long, multicenter bonds). In good agreement with the interpretation of the experimental spectroscopic data, all clip2(n+) dimers whose charge is ≤4 present an optimum geometry that, in all cases, has three short interfragment [TTF](l+)···[TTF](m+) interactions. The computed ΔG(298 K) for these optimum structures matches the available experimental data on the stability of these dimers. Such optimum geometry, combined with the zwitterionic character of the electron distribution in monomers and dimers (most of the net positive charge is equally distributed among the TTF groups, while a 1- au charge is located in the central fused five-membered rings) allows the formation of a maximum of two long, multicenter [TTF](•+)···[TTF](•+) bonds when all TTF groups host a 1+ au of charge, as in clip2(4+). However, these long, multicenter bonds alone do not account for the stability of clip2(n+) dimers at room temperature. Instead, the studies carried out here trace the origin of their stability to (1) the zwitterionic character of their charge distribution, (2) the proper geometrical shape of the interacting monomers, which allows the intercalation of their arms, thus making possible the simultaneous formation of two short contacts, both involving the positively charged TTF group of one monomer and the negatively charged central ring of the other, (3) the simultaneous presence of three short contacts among the TTF groups in the optimum geometry of the clip2(n+) dimers, which become two long, multicenter bonds and one van der Waals interaction when the four TTF groups host a 1+ charge, and (4) the net stabilizing effect of the solvent.

The nature of the [TTF]˙+···[TTF]˙+ interactions in the [TTF]2(2+) dimers embedded in charged [3]catenanes: room-temperature multicenter long bonds.

The properties of tetrathiafulvalene dimers ([TTF](2)(2+)) and the functionalized ring-shaped bispropargyl (BPP)-functionalized TTF dimers, [BPP-TTF](2)(2+), found at room temperature in charged [3]catenanes, were evaluated by M06L calculations. The results showed that their isolated [TTF](2)(2+) and [BPP-TTF](2)(2+) dimers are energetically unstable towards dissociation. When enclosed in the 4(+)-charged central cyclophane ring of charged [3]catenanes (CBPQT(4+)), [TTF](2)(2+) and [BPP-TTF](2)(2+) dimers are also energetically unstable with respect to leaving the CBPQT(4+) ring; since the barrier for the exiting process is only about 3 kcal mol(-1), that is, within the reach of thermal energies at room temperature (neutral [TTF](2)(0) dimers are stable within the CBPQT(4+) ring). However, the [BPP-TTF](2)(2+) dimers in charged [3]catenanes cannot exit, because this would imply breaking the covalent bonds of the BPP-TTF(+) macrocycle. Finally, it was shown that the [TTF](2)(2+), [BPP-TTF](2)(2+) dimers, and charged [3]catenanes are energetically stable in solution and in crystals of their salts, in the first case due to the interactions with the solvent, and in the second case mostly due to cation-anion interactions. In these environmental conditions at room temperature the TTF units of the [BPP-TTF](2)(2+) dimers make short contacts, thus allowing their SOMO orbitals to overlap: a room-temperature multicenter long bond is formed, similar to those previously found in other [TTF](2)(2+) salts and their solutions.

Substituent and counterion effects on the formation of π-dimer dications of end-capped heptathienoacenes.

We have investigated the impact of the functionalization and the chemical nature of counterions on the π-dimer dications formation in two end-capped heptathienoacenes. Radical cations of an α-substituted heptathienoacene with triisopropylsilyl groups do not π-dimerize, while those of an α,ß-substituted heptathienoacene with four n-decyl side chains show a high propensity toward π-dimerization, increased by PF(6)(-) counterions.

Unusually long, multicenter, cation(δ+)···anion(δ-) bonding observed for several polymorphs of [TTF][TCNE].

The α, ß, and δ polymorphs of [TTF][TCNE] (TTF=tetrathiafulvalene; TCNE=tetracyanoethylene) exhibit a new type of long, multicenter bonding between the [TTF](δ+) and [TCNE](δ-) moieties, demonstrating the existence of long, hetero-multicenter bonding with a cationic(δ+)···anionic(δ-) zwitterionic-like structure. These diamagnetic π-[TTF](δ+) [TCNE](δ-) heterodimers exhibit a transfer of about 0.5 e(-) from the TTF to the TCNE fragments, as observed from experimental studies, in accord with theoretical predictions, that is, [TTF(δ+)···TCNE(δ-)] (δ≅0.5). They have several interfragment distances <3.4 Å, and a computed interaction energy of -21.2 kcal mol(-1), which is typical of long, multicenter bonds. The lower stability of [TTF](δ+) [TCNE](δ-) with respect to typical ionic bonds is due, in part, to the partial electron transfer that reduces the electrostatic bonding component. This reduced electrostatic interaction, and the large interfragment dispersion stabilize the long, heterocationic/anionic multicenter interaction, which in [TTF(δ+)···TCNE(δ-)] always involves two electrons, but have ten, eight, and eight bond critical points (bcps) involving C-C, N-S, and sometimes C-S and C-N components for the α, ß, and δ polymorphs, respectively. In contrast, γ-[TTF][TCNE] possesses [TTF](2)(2+) and [TCNE](2)(2-) dimers, each with long, homo-multicenter 2e(-)/12c (c=center, 2 C+4 S) [TTF](2)(2+) cationic(+)···cationic(+) bonds, as well as long, homo-multicenter 2e(-)/4c [TCNE](2)(2-) anionic(-)···anionic(-) bonding. The MO diagrams for the α, ß, and δ polymorphs have all of the features found for conventional covalent C-C bonds, and for all of the previously studied multicenter long bonds, for example, π-[TTF](2)(2+) and π-[TCNE](2)(2-). The HOMOs for α-, ß-, and δ-[TTF][TCNE] have 2c C-S and 3c C-C-C orbital-overlap contributions between the [TTF](δ+-) and [TCNE](δ-) moieties; these are the shortest intra [TTF···TCNE] separations. Thus, from an orbital-overlap perspective, the bonding has 2c and 3c components residing over one S and four C atoms.