GLP-1 Increases Circulating Leptin Levels in Truncal Vagotomized Rats.

GLP-1 is a gastro-intestinal hormone acting within the gut/brain axis for energy balance regulation. We aimed to evaluate the role of the vagus nerve in whole-body energy homeostasis and in mediating GLP-1 effects. For this, rats submitted to truncal vagotomy and sham-operated controls underwent a comprehensive evaluation, including eating behavior, body weight, percentage of white (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), resting energy expenditure (REE) and acute response to GLP-1. Truncal vagotomized rats had significantly lower food intake, body weight, body weight gain, WAT and BAT, with a higher BAT/WAT ratio, but no significant difference in REE when compared to controls. Vagotomized rats also had significantly higher fasting ghrelin and lower glucose and insulin levels. After GLP-1 administration, vagotomized rats depicted a blunted anorexigenic response and higher plasma leptin levels, as compared to controls. However, in vitro stimulation of VAT explants with GLP-1 resulted in no significant changes in leptin secretion. In conclusion, the vagus nerve influences whole-body energy homeostasis by modifying food intake, body weight and body composition and by mediating the GLP-1 anorectic response. The higher leptin levels in response to acute GLP-1 administration observed after truncal vagotomy suggest the existence of a putative GLP-1-leptin axis that relies on the integrity of gut-brain vagal pathway.

Gender Dimorphism in Hepatic Carcinogenesis-Related Gene Expression Associated with Obesity as a Low-Grade Chronic Inflammatory Disease.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) show clear evidence of sexual dimorphism, with a significantly higher incidence in males. Among the determining factors that could explain this sex-based difference, the specific distribution of fat by sex has been suggested as a primary candidate, since obesity is a relevant risk factor. In this context, obesity, considered a low-grade chronic inflammatory pathology and responsible for the promotion of liver disease, could lead to sexual dimorphism in the expression profile of genes related to tumor development. When we compared the expression levels of genes associated with the early stages of carcinogenesis in the liver between male and female diet-induced obesity (DIO) rats, we observed that the expression pattern was similar in obese male and female animals. Interestingly, the SURVIVIN/BIRC5 oncogene showed a higher expression in male DIO rats than in female DIO and lean rats. This trend related to sexual dimorphism was observed in leukocytes from patients with obesity, although the difference was not statistically significant. In conclusion, this study evidenced a similar pattern in the expression of most carcinogenesis-related genes in the liver, except SUVIVIN/BIRC5, which could be a predictive biomarker of liver carcinogenesis predisposition in male patients with obesity.

Epigenetic Effects of Healthy Foods and Lifestyle Habits from the Southern European Atlantic Diet Pattern: A Narrative Review.

Recent scientific evidence has shown the importance of diet and lifestyle habits for the proper functioning of the human body. A balanced and healthy diet, physical activity, and psychological well-being have a direct beneficial effect on health and can have a crucial role in the development and prognosis of certain diseases. The Southern European Atlantic diet, also named the Atlantic diet, is a unique dietary pattern that occurs in regions that present higher life expectancy, suggesting that this specific dietary pattern is associated with positive health effects. In fact, it is enriched with nutrients of high biological value, which, together with its cooking methods, physical activity promotion, reduction in carbon footprint, and promoting of family meals, promote these positive effects on health. The latest scientific advances in the field of nutri-epigenetics have revealed that epigenetic markers associated with food or nutrients and environmental factors modulate gene expression and, therefore, are involved with both health and disease. Thus, in this review, we evaluated the main aspects that define the Southern European Atlantic diet and the potential epigenetic changes associated with them based on recent studies regarding the main components of these dietary patterns. In conclusion, based on the information existing in the literature, we postulate that the Southern European Atlantic diet could promote healthy aging by means of epigenetic mechanisms. This review highlights the necessity of performing longitudinal studies to demonstrate this proposal.

Adipose tissue and blood leukocytes ACE2 DNA methylation in obesity and after weight loss.

BACKGROUND: Obesity was consistently associated with a poor prognosis in patients with COVID-19. Epigenetic mechanisms were proposed as the link between obesity and comorbidities risk. AIM: To evaluate the methylation levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) gene, the main entry receptor of SARS-CoV-2, in different depots of adipose tissue (AT) and leukocytes (PBMCs) in obesity and after weight loss therapy based on a very-low-calorie ketogenic diet (VLCKD), a balanced hypocaloric diet (HCD) or bariatric surgery (BS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: DNA methylation levels of ACE2 were extracted from our data sets generated by the hybridization of subcutaneous (SAT) (n = 32) or visceral (VAT; n = 32) adipose tissue, and PBMCs (n = 34) samples in Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChips. Data were compared based on the degree of obesity and after 4-6 months of weight loss either by following a nutritional or surgical treatment and correlated with ACE2 transcript levels. RESULTS: As compared with normal weight, VAT from patients with obesity showed higher ACE2 methylation levels. These differences were mirrored in PBMCs but not in SAT. The observed obesity-associated methylation of ACE2 was reversed after VLCKD and HCD but not after BS. Among the studied CpG sites, cg16734967 and cg21598868, located at the promoter, were the most affected and correlated with BMI. The observed DNA methylation pattern was inversely correlated with ACE2 expression. CONCLUSION: Obesity-related VAT shows hypermethylation and downregulation of the ACE2 gene that is mirrored in PBMCs and is restored after nutritional weight reduction therapy. The results warrant the necessity to further evaluate its implication for COVID-19 pathogenesis.

Weight loss normalizes enhanced expression of the oncogene survivin in visceral adipose tissue and blood leukocytes from individuals with obesity.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Survivin is an oncogene associated with a decrease in apoptosis, an increase in tumor growth, and poor clinical outcome of diverse malignancies. A correlation between obesity, cancer, and survivin is reported in the literature. To date, the impact of weight loss on change in survivin levels is understudied. This study was aimed at: (1) comparing survivin levels in adipose tissue (AT) from lean and obese animal models and evaluating changes after weight loss induced by energy restriction and/or exercise; (2) comparing survivin levels in normal weighted and obese humans and evaluating changes in survivin levels after weight loss induced by a very-low-calorie ketogenic diet (VLCKD) or bariatric surgery in AT and/or blood leukocytes (PBL/PBMCs). SUBJECTS/METHODS: Survivin expression was evaluated in subcutaneous (SAT) and visceral (VAT) AT derived from animal models of monogenic (Zucker rats) and diet-induced obesity (Sprague Dawley rats and C57BL/6J mice) and after a 4-week weight-loss protocol of energy restriction and/or exercise. Plasma was used to measure the inflammatory status. Survivin expression was also evaluated in PBMCs from patients with obesity and compared with normal weight, in PBLs after VLCKD, and in SAT and/or PBLs after bariatric surgery. RESULTS: Survivin expression was specifically higher in VAT from obese that lean animals, without differences in SAT. It decreased after weight loss induced by energy restriction and correlated with adiposity and inflammatory markers. In humans, the correlation between being obese and higher levels of survivin was confirmed. In obese subjects, survivin levels were reduced following weight loss after either VLCKD or bariatric surgery. Particularly, a decrease in PBMCs expression (not in SAT one) was found after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Weight loss is effective in decreasing survivin levels. Also, PBL/PBMC should be regarded as appropriate mirror of survivin levels in VAT for the identification of an obesity-related protumoral microenvironment.

ZNF577 Methylation Levels in Leukocytes From Women With Breast Cancer Is Modulated by Adiposity, Menopausal State, and the Mediterranean Diet.

The methylation levels of ZNF577 in breast tumors has been previously identified as a possible epigenetic mark of breast cancer associated with obesity. The aim of the current study was to investigate differences in methylation levels of ZNF577 depending on obesity, menopausal state and dietary pattern in blood leukocytes, a non-invasive sample. The methylation levels of ZNF577 of two CpG sites (CpGs) located in promoter and island previously identified as differentially methylated according to adiposity and menopausal state by 450 k array (cg10635122, cg03562414) were evaluated by pyrosequencing in DNA from the blood leukocytes of breast cancer patients [n = 90; n = 64 (71.1%) overweight/obesity and n = 26 (28.9%) normal-weight] and paired tumor tissue biopsies (n = 8 breast cancer patients with obesity; n = 3/5 premenopausal/postmenopausal women). Differences in methylation levels were evaluated at each CpGs individually and at the mean of the two evaluated CpGs. Adherence to the Mediterranean diet was evaluated using the MEDAS-validated questionnaire, and the consumption of food groups of interest was also evaluated using the recommended intakes of the Sociedad Española de Nutricion Comunitaria. The methylation levels of ZNF577 were correlated between paired leukocytes and breast tumor biopsies (r = 0.62; p = 0.001). Moreover, higher methylation was found in leukocytes from patients with obesity (p = 0.002) and postmenopausal patients (p = 0.022) than patients with normal-weight or premenopausal, respectively. After adjusting for the body mass index and age, higher levels of ZNF577 methylation were also found in women with greater adherence to the Mediterranean diet (p = 0.017) or specific foods. Relevantly, the methylation levels of ZNF577 showed a good ability for fish consumption detection [area under the ROC curve (AUC) = 0.72; p = 0.016]. In conclusion, the association between methylation of ZNF577 and adiposity, menopausal state, and adherence to the Mediterranean diet can be detected in the blood leukocytes. The results guarantee the need of performing further studies in longer longitudinal cohorts in order to elucidate the role of ZNF577 methylation in the association between breast cancer, adiposity and dietary patterns.

Temperature but not leptin prevents semi-starvation induced hyperactivity in rats: implications for anorexia nervosa treatment.

The hypothesis linking hyperactivity with weight loss associated hypoleptinemia in anorexia nervosa gained momentum after a study showing that leptin suppressed semi-starvation induced hyperactivity in rats. Alternatively, ambient temperature is a key modulating factor of activity in semi-starved rats. The aim of the study is to compare the efficacy of leptin with increased ambient temperature in the prevention of hyperactivity in semi-starved rats. 74 Sprague-Dawley male rats were employed in two experiments with the difference residing in the length of baseline. After an extended (28 days), or shorter (14 days) baseline with free access to food and the running wheel, housed at 21 °C, animals were either ad-lib feed or food restricted (60% of food ingested during previous week) and infused with same amount of leptin at 21 °C, 25 °C, or vehicle at 21 °C, 25 °C and 32 °C for a week. Animals housed at 32 °C significantly reduced wheel running and weight loss during food restriction while animals given leptin did not yield no differences in activity or weight loss. Moreover, unlike animals housed at 32 °C, body temperature of leptin infused animals housed at 21 °C was significantly reduced during food restriction. Furthermore, leptin treated rats without a preceding stable pattern of activity displayed a severe dysregulation of circadian rhythm in activity and a collapse of body temperature. Housing temperature plays a more critical role than leptin in the regulation of semi-starvation induced hyperactivity in rats, which may be of relevance for the management of hyperactivity in anorexia nervosa.

An energy restriction-based weight loss intervention is able to reverse the effects of obesity on the expression of liver tumor-promoting genes.

The epidemiological evidence regarding the association of obesity with liver disease and possibly hepatocellular carcinoma highlights the need for investigations of whether obesity itself could induce the differential expression of genes commonly associated with the initial phase of liver tumorigenesis, and whether such phenomenon could be reversed after a weight loss intervention. In this study, obese Zucker rats were found to have dysregulated cell proliferation, antioxidative defenses, and tumor suppressor gene expression in association with liver dysfunction parameters, as well as oxidative stress and inflammation. Importantly, after a 4-week weight loss protocol of energy restriction and/or exercise, this effect on the liver carcinogenesis-related genes was reversed concomitantly with reductions in the fat mass, hepatic lipid content, oxidative stress, and inflammation. The findings indicate that the oxidative stress and inflammation associated with excess adiposity promote dysregulation of the genes involved in liver tumorigenesis. This is clinically relevant because these effects were detectable in the liver without evidence of a tumoral mass and were reversed after weight loss. Consequently, this study reveals the susceptibility of obese individuals to the initiation of a hepatocarcinogenic process, and how this can be prevented by achieving a healthy body weight.

Leptin, Obesity, and Leptin Resistance: Where Are We 25 Years Later?

Leptin, a hormone that is capable of effectively reducing food intake and body weight, was initially considered for use in the treatment of obesity. However, obese subjects have since been found to have high levels of circulating leptin and to be insensitive to the exogenous administration of leptin. The inability of leptin to exert its anorexigenic effects in obese individuals, and therefore, the lack of clinical utility of leptin in obesity, is defined as leptin resistance. This phenomenon has not yet been adequately characterized. Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying leptin resistance is of vital importance for the application of leptin as an effective treatment for obesity. Leptin must cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to reach the hypothalamus and exert its anorexigenic functions. The mechanisms involved in leptin transportation across the blood-brain barrier continue to be unclear, thereby preventing the clinical application of leptin in the treatment of obesity. In recent years, new strategies have been developed to recover the response to leptin in obesity. We have summarized these strategies in this review.

Anti-obesity activity of OBEX is regulated by activation of thermogenesis and decreasing adiposity gain.

The incidence of obesity has been increasing dramatically worldwide over the past decades, thus requiring novel and effective therapeutic approaches. OBEX is an oral nutritional supplement composed of antioxidants with antiobesity activity. The effects of OBEX have been tested in vivo and in vitro. In vivo, OBEX reduces weight gain by decreasing adiposity gain and increasing energy expenditure in high fat diet-fed mice through the activation of thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT) independent of eating behaviors. In vitro analysis with 3T3-F442A cells revealed anti-proliferative and anti-differentiation effects of OBEX. In addition, OBEX induced a clear reduction of the lipid load in mature adipocytes obtained from 3T3-F442A cells. Overall, our findings suggest that OBEX has a protective effect against an obesogenic environment.

Oxidative Stress Induced by Excess of Adiposity Is Related to a Downregulation of Hepatic SIRT6 Expression in Obese Individuals.

Sirt6 is a member of the sirtuin family involved in physiological and pathological processes including aging, cancer, obesity, diabetes, and energy metabolism. This study is aimed at evaluating the relationship between liver SIRT6 gene expression and the oxidative stress network depending on adiposity levels in Zucker rats, an animal model of metabolic syndrome. We observed that liver-specific SIRT6 expression is reduced in an in vivo model of spontaneous obesity and metabolic syndrome. We also observed that SIRT6 expression in the liver is positively associated with SIRT1 and GST-M2 expressions, two proteins involved in antioxidant protection pathways and inversely related to body weight and plasmatic oxidative status. Interestingly, the SIRT6 expression is upregulated after energy restriction-induced weight loss concomitantly with an improvement in oxidative stress markers. These results suggest that SIRT6 may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of obesity and associated metabolic disorders, such as liver disease.

Evolution and bad prognostic value of advanced glycation end products after acute heart failure: relation with body composition.

AIM: The role of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and their soluble receptor (sRAGE) on the progression and prognosis of acute heart failure (HF) was analysed in relation with metabolic parameters as body composition and nutritional status. METHODS: A hundred and fifty consecutive patients were included in a prospective clinical study during hospitalization by acute HF. Detailed medical history, physical examination, electrocardiogram, echocardiogram and vein peripheral blood were taken for all patients. During the follow-up period [297 days (88-422 days)] blood samples for biochemical measurements were obtained 1 and 6 months after the inclusion. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry analyses were performed 1 week after discharge. RESULTS: AGEs and sRAGE levels continuously increased, up to 6 months, after acute HF, but AGEs increase was mainly observed in those patients with incident HF. Both AGEs and sRAGE levels were related with bad renal function and clinical malnutrition (CONUT score) and they were negatively related with body mass index or percentage of body fat. AGEs levels (≥40 a.u.) 1 month after discharge and basal sRAGE levels (>1000 pg/mL) were related with worse prognosis in terms of patient death and HF readmission (Log-rank <0.05 in Kaplan-Meier survival test), independently of age, gender, body mass index and other risk factors. Regression models also corroborated this finding. CONCLUSIONS: AGEs and sRAGE are bad prognostic biomarkers for HF and useful markers of HF progression. Since their levels seem to be related with clinical malnutrition and body composition these parameters could serve to modulate them.

Obesity and menopause modify the epigenomic profile of breast cancer.

Obesity is a high risk factor for breast cancer. This relationship could be marked by a specific methylome. The current work was aimed to explore the impact of obesity and menopausal status on variation in breast cancer methylomes. Data from Infinium 450K array-based methylomes of 64 breast tumors were coupled with information on BMI and menopausal status. Additionally, DNA methylation results were validated in 18 non-tumor and 81 tumor breast samples. Breast tumors arising in either pre- or postmenopausal women stratified by BMI or menopausal status alone were not associated with a specific DNA methylation pattern. Intriguingly, the DNA methylation pattern identified in association with the high-risk group (postmenopausal women with high BMI (>25) and premenopausal women with normal or low BMI < 25) exclusively characterized by hypermethylation of 1287 CpG sites as compared with the low-risk group. These CpG sites included the promoter region of fourteen protein-coding genes of which CpG methylation over the ZNF577 promoter region represents the top scoring associated event. In an independent cohort, the ZNF577 promoter methylation remained statistically significant in association with the high-risk group. Additionally, the impact of ZNF577 promoter methylation on mRNA expression levels was demonstrated in breast cancer cell lines after treatment with a demethylating agent (5-azacytidine). In conclusion, the epigenome of breast tumors is affected by a complex interaction between BMI and menopausal status. The ZNF577 methylation quantification is clearly relevant for the development of novel biomarkers of precision therapy in breast cancer.

Orosomucoid as prognosis factor associated with inflammation in acute or nutritional status in chronic heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Inflammation and nutritional state are involved in the pathogenesis of heart failure (HF). OBJECTIVE: To study the contribution of alpha-1-acid-glycoprotein (AGP) to these factors and its prognostic value in acute (AHF) or chronic HF (CHF). METHODS: The observational study has included 147 patients (mean age 70years, 62% men) admitted to a cardiology department for HF and followed-up for an average 326.6±140.8days. Blood AGP values were measured by Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay. Monocytes subsets were determined with CD14 and CD16 antibodies by flow cytometry and body composition was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The regulation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and leptin by AGP in epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) were analyzed by real time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: High AGP, that was associated with CD14+CD16+ monocytes, and proBNP levels at the discharge were indicators of rehospitalization for HF in AHF patients. However, low AGP levels determined a worse nutritional state in CHF patients. The leptin levels were downregulated by high AGP concentration in epicardial fat. CONCLUSION: AGP is a dual indicator in HF because high levels are predictors of adverse outcomes in AHF but low levels are related to the worse nutritional status in CHF. The regulation of leptin by AGP in epicardial fat might suggest a new pathway as protective mechanism in CHF.

Non classical Monocytes Levels, Increased by Subcutaneous Fat-Secretome, Are Associated with Less Rehospitalization after Heart Failure Admission.

Differential monocyte subsets are increased in obesity and heart failure (HF). We studied their role as predictors of rehospitalization for HF and their regulation by adipose tissue. Monocyte subsets and body fat composition were determined from 136 patients at the discharge after HF admission. Regulation of monocytes by SAT secretomes from obese/non-obese patients with HF was studied in a cell culture method. Proteomic analysis of secretome SAT was performed by LC-MALDI TOF/TOF. High CD14-CD16+ monocyte levels indicated less rehospitalization for HF (p = 0.018). SAT secretomes from obese patients increased the CD14-CD16+monocytes (11.8 ± 5.3 vs 3.9 ± 2.6%; p < 0.01). Differential proteins were determined between obese and non-obese patients with HF. High levels of CD14-CD16+ monocytes are associated with less rehospitalization for HF. This phenotype is upregulated by SAT secretome from obese patients with HF. This mechanism might help us to understand the obesity paradox in HF.

Leptin resistance in obesity: An epigenetic landscape.

Leptin is an adipocyte-secreted hormone that inhibits food intake and stimulates energy expenditure through interactions with neuronal pathways in the brain, particularly pathways involving the hypothalamus. Intact functioning of the leptin route is required for body weight and energy homeostasis. Given its function, the discovery of leptin increased expectations for the treatment of obesity. However, most obese individuals and subjects with a predisposition to regain weight after losing it have leptin concentrations than lean individuals, but despite the anorexigenic function of this hormone, appetite is not effectively suppressed in these individuals. This phenomenon has been deemed leptin resistance and could be the result of impairments at a number of levels in the leptin signalling pathway, including reduced access of the hormone to its receptor due to changes in receptor expression or changes in post-receptor signal transduction. Epigenetic regulation of the leptin signalling circuit could be a potential mechanism of leptin function disturbance. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms, particularly the epigenetic regulation mechanisms, involved in leptin resistance associated with obesity and the therapeutic potential of these molecular mechanisms in the battle against the obesity pandemic.

Enhanced thermic effect of food, postprandial NEFA suppression and raised adiponectin in obese women who eat slowly.

OBJECTIVE: Meal duration may influence cardiometabolic health. The aim of this study was to explore postprandial effects of meal duration on human metabolism and appetite. DESIGN: Postprandial comparisons following a standard meal eaten slowly over 40 min ('D40') and the same meal eaten quickly over 10 min ('D10') on a different day. Each participant therefore acted as their own control, thereby limiting confounding factors. PATIENTS: Obese premenopausal Caucasian women (n = 10) with confirmed normoglycaemia were recruited from an obesity clinic at UHCW, Coventry UK. Subjects underwent whole-body calorimetry (8-h) on two separate days. MEASUREMENTS: Following standard lunch (D40 vs D10), 4-h postprandial analysis included thermic effect of food (TEF) and bloods taken at predefined times (including baseline fasting). Analytes included lipid profile, adiponectin, insulin, glucose, ghrelin, leptin, endotoxin, gut and pancreatic hormones. Appetite was measured using visual-analogue scales and ad libitum food intake at subsequent meal. Paired sample t-tests [including area under the curve (AUC)] were used to compare D40 and D10 trials. RESULTS: Postprandial TEF (over 240-min) was significantly greater for D40 than D10 [mean (SEM): 80·9 kcal (3·8) vs 29·9 kcal (3·4); 10·6% vs 3·9%, respectively, P = 0·006; AUC 71·7 kcal.h vs 22·4 kcal.h, respectively, P = 0·02]. Postprandial plasma NEFA was significantly lower, and adiponectin levels were significantly higher for D40 than D10 [AUC (SEM): NEFA 627 µmol.h/l (56) vs 769 µmol.h/l (60), respectively, P = 0·02; adiponectin 33·4 µg.h/ml (3·9) vs 27·3 µg.h/ml (3·8), respectively, P = 0·04]. Other postprandial analytes and appetite measures were equivalent. CONCLUSIONS: In obese women, eating slowly associates with enhanced TEF, elevated serum adiponectin and suppressed NEFA.

Association between circulating irisin levels and the promotion of insulin resistance during the weight maintenance period after a dietary weight-lowering program in obese patients.

OBJECTIVE: Weight regain is associated with the promotion of insulin resistance. The newly discovered myokine irisin, which was proposed to be involved in the management of insulin sensitivity, could play a role in this process. This study aimed to investigate the association between irisin and reduced insulin sensitivity induced by weight regain. MATERIALS/METHODS: Insulin sensitivity was evaluated according to the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) in 136 obese patients who followed an eight-week hypocaloric diet (30% reduced energy expenditure) to lose weight and was re-evaluated four or six months after treatment. Irisin plasma levels, as well as the levels of leptin, adiponectin, ghrelin and TNF-α, were quantified in a sub-cohort (n=73) from the initially studied patients at baseline (T0), at the diet endpoint (T1) and after the follow-up period (T2). RESULTS: After a successful dietary intervention to lose weight, 50% of the patients who regained the lost weight during the follow-up period were categorized as insulin resistant (HOMA-IR≥2.5) compared with only 25% of patients who maintained the weight loss (p=0.018). Importantly, in addition to the well-studied hormones leptin and adiponectin, irisin plasma levels were statistically associated with several risk factors for insulin resistance. Indeed, the increased risk of insulin resistance during the follow-up period was related to high irisin levels at baseline (odds ratio=4.2; p=0.039). CONCLUSIONS: Circulating irisin predicts the insulin resistance onset in association with weight regain. Therefore, irisin could be secreted as an adaptive response to counteract the deleterious effect of excess adiposity on glucose homeostasis.

Obesity and the future. New problems and new solutions

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Sleeve gastrectomy and gastric plication in the rat result in weight loss with different endocrine profiles.

BACKGROUND: Restrictive bariatric surgery procedures currently used include adjustable gastric banding, sleeve gastrectomy (SG), and gastric plication (GP), of which the last two techniques still lack sufficient data and long-term studies on weight loss, surgical complications, resolution of comorbidities, and mechanisms of weight loss. Therefore, gastric plication and sleeve gastrectomy as a standalone procedure are still considered experimental. Our aim was to analyze the effects of SG and GP on body weight, food intake, and endocrine profile. METHODS: Forty-four male Wistar rats were randomized into six weight-matched groups and submitted either to SG, GP, or sham-operated. Sham-operated rats were divided into pair-fed and fed ad libitum controls, one for each procedure. Animals were followed up for 21 days after surgery, while body weight and food intake were recorded daily, when fasting ghrelin, leptin, insulin and glucose plasma levels, and ghrelin expression in the stomach were measured. RESULTS: Rats submitted to SG and GP showed a significant decrease in body weight gain to the same extent as rats pair-fed to the surgical groups when compared to sham-operated fed ad libitum controls. After surgery, SG rats showed no difference in body composition, ghrelin, leptin, insulin, or glucose levels, while GP rats displayed lower body fat content and leptin levels compared to controls. Ghrelin was also lower in GP rats compared to sham-operated pair-fed rats. Ghrelin expression displayed a pattern similar to circulating ghrelin. CONCLUSIONS: SG and GP result in weight loss, although with differences in body composition and metabolic and endocrine profiles.