Attentional Bias Modification Training Based on Virtual Reality and Eye Tracking in Anorexia Nervosa Patients.

Anorexia nervosa (AN) patients exhibit attentional bias (AB) related to the body, which is the tendency to pay greater attention to weight-related body areas compared to non-weight-related ones. This phenomenon has been linked to elevated levels of body dissatisfaction (BD) and may potentially reduce the effectiveness of body exposure therapy. The purpose of this pilot study is to assess the efficacy of a single session of a new body-related AB modification task (ABMT) that combines virtual reality with eye tracking in patients with AN. The goals of the ABMT are to reduce body-related AB by balancing attention between weight and non-weight-related body areas and to reduce BD levels. Twenty-three adolescent patients with AN were embodied in a virtual avatar and immersed in a virtual environment where they completed the ABMT. Body-related AB measures and BD levels were assessed before and after the training. A paired samples t-test showed statistically significant differences between pre-assessment and post-assessment; the complete fixation time on weight-related body parts was reduced and BD levels decreased. The initial evidence of the efficacy of this ABMT has important clinical implications, since AB and BD are considered risk factors for developing and maintaining eating disorder symptomatology among patients with AN.

Modification of Body-Related Attentional Bias through Virtual Reality and Eye-Tracking in Healthy Participants: Implications for Anorexia Nervosa Treatments.

Cognitive biases have a significant impact on the etiology and treatment of eating disorders (EDs). These biases, including selective attentional bias (AB) to disliked body parts, may reinforce concerns about body shape, fear of gaining weight and body image disturbances and may contribute to dietary restriction and restraint. Decreasing AB could reduce core symptoms in anorexia nervosa (AN). This study represents a preliminary exploration aiming to assess whether AB towards weight-related (WR) and non-weight-related (NW) body parts could be reduced through an AB modification task in a virtual reality (VR) environment in healthy participants. A total of 54 female participants, aged 22.98 ± 1.89, were recruited. The task consisted of directing the participants' attention towards all body parts equally in a VR setting. Eye-tracking (ET) measurements (complete fixation time [CFT] and number of fixations [NF]) were made before and after the task. The results showed a significant reduction of the AB in the two groups with an initial AB towards WR body parts or towards NW body parts. Participants showed a tendency to more balanced (non-biased) attention after the intervention. This study provides evidence of the usefulness of AB modification tasks in a non-clinical sample.

An Attentional Bias Modification Task, through Virtual Reality and Eye-Tracking Technologies, to Enhance the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa.

Mirror exposure therapies (METs) have been shown to be effective in reducing body image disturbances through the habituation process. Virtual reality (VR) combined with eye-tracking techniques can provide innovative solutions to some of METs' limitations reported with patients with anorexia nervosa (AN), especially the negative influence of body-related attentional bias (AB). This pilot study aimed to assess the preliminary efficacy of a new VR-based AB modification task (ABMT) among healthy women and the procedure's user experience. AB levels towards weight- and non-weight-related body parts, using complete fixation time (CFT) and number of fixations (NF), were assessed throughout the ABMT procedure (300 trials). The user experience was evaluated at the end of the procedure. The results showed that VR-based ABMT was effective in reducing AB significantly after 150 trials for both CFT- and NF-based measures, although 225 trials were necessary to get the same result for women with an NF initially more oriented towards weight-related body parts. Overall, the software received a "C-rating" on a scale from "A" (most usable) to "F" (least usable). These results provide evidence of the opportunity to use a VR-based ABMT procedure to reduce AB and improve existing treatments for AN.

Structural brain correlates in major depression, anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder: A voxel-based morphometry meta-analysis.

The high comorbidity of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), Anxiety Disorders (ANX), and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has hindered the study of their structural neural correlates. The authors analyzed specific and common grey matter volume (GMV) characteristics by comparing them with healthy controls (HC). The meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry (VBM) studies showed unique GMV diminutions for each disorder (p < 0.05, corrected) and less robust smaller GMV across diagnostics (p < 0.01, uncorrected). Pairwise comparison between the disorders showed GMV differences in MDD versus ANX and in ANX versus PTSD. These results endorse the hypothesis that unique clinical features characterizing MDD, ANX, and PTSD are also reflected by disorder specific GMV correlates.

AN-VR-BE. A Randomized Controlled Trial for Reducing Fear of Gaining Weight and Other Eating Disorder Symptoms in Anorexia Nervosa through Virtual Reality-Based Body Exposure.

In vivo body exposure therapy is considered an effective and suitable intervention to help patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) reduce their body image disturbances (BIDs). However, these interventions have notable limitations and cannot effectively reproduce certain fears usually found in AN, such as the fear of gaining weight (FGW). The latest developments in virtual reality (VR) technology and embodiment-based procedures could overcome these limitations and allow AN patients to confront their FGW and BIDs. This study aimed to provide further evidence of the efficacy of an enhanced (by means of embodiment) VR-based body exposure therapy for the treatment of AN. Thirty-five AN patients (16 in the experimental group, 19 in the control group) participated in the study. FGW, BIDs, and other body-related and ED measures were assessed before and after the intervention and three months later. The experimental group received treatment as usual (TAU) and five additional sessions of VR-based body exposure therapy, while the control group received only TAU. After the intervention, ED symptoms were clearly reduced in both groups, with most of the changes being more noticeable in the experimental group. Specifically, after the intervention and at follow-up, significant group differences were found in the FGW and BIDs, with the experimental group showing significantly lower values than the control group. The current study provides new insights and encouraging findings in the field of exposure-based therapies in AN. VR technology might improve research and clinical practice in AN by providing new tools to help patients confront their core fears (i.e., food- or weight-related cues) and improve their emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to their body image.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder: Psychopathological similarities and differences in comparison to anorexia nervosa and the general population.

INTRODUCTION: Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) categorises patients with selective and/or restrictive eating patterns in the absence of distorted cognition concerning weight, food, and body image. OBJECTIVE: To examine the sociodemographic and clinical profile of patients with ARFID in comparison to those with anorexia nervosa (AN) and to a non-clinical group (NCG). METHOD: A descriptive, observational, comparative study made up of three groups (ARFID, AN and NCG). Ninety-nine children and adolescents were analyzed by means of a semi-structured diagnostic interview and questionnaires on depression, anxiety, clinical fears and general psychopathology. RESULTS: The ARFID group was significantly younger (10.8 vs. 14.1 years of age), with a greater proportion of males (60.6% vs. 6.1%), an earlier onset of illness (6.2 vs. 13.4 years of age), and a longer period of evolution of the illness (61.2 vs. 8.4 months) compared to the AN group. Clinically, patients with ARFID showed greater medical (42.4% vs. 12.1%) and psychiatric (81.8% vs. 33.3%) comorbidity-assessed with a semi-structured diagnostic interview-greater clinical fear (p < 0.005), more attention problems (p < 0.005) and fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression (p < 0.005)-measured with self-report questionnaires. CONCLUSIONS: ARFID is a serious disorder with a significant impact on the physical and mental health of the pediatric population. Likewise, some of these physical and mental conditions may be a risk factor in developing ARFID. Attention problems and clinical fears in ARFID, and the greater presence of internalised symptoms in AN, were the main differences found in the psychopathological profiles.

Validity of Virtual Reality Body Exposure to Elicit Fear of Gaining Weight, Body Anxiety and Body-Related Attentional Bias in Patients with Anorexia Nervosa.

Fear of gaining weight (FGW), body image disturbances, associated anxiety and body-related attentional bias are the core symptoms of anorexia nervosa (AN) and play critical roles in its development and maintenance. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the usefulness of virtual reality-based body exposure software for the assessment of important body-related cognitive and emotional responses in AN. Thirty female patients with AN, one of them subclinical, and 43 healthy college women, 25 with low body dissatisfaction (BD) and 18 with high BD, owned a virtual body that had their silhouette and body mass index. Full-body illusion (FBI) over the virtual body was induced using both visuo-motor and visuo-tactile stimulation. Once the FBI was induced, the FBI itself, FGW, body anxiety and body-related attentional bias toward weight-related and non-weight-related body areas were assessed. One-way analyses of covariance (ANCOVA), controlling for age, showed that AN patients reported higher FGW, body anxiety and body-related attentional bias than healthy controls. Unexpectedly, patients with AN reported significantly lower FBI levels than healthy participants. Finally, Pearson correlations showed significant relationships between visual analog scales and body-related attentional bias measures, compared to other eating disorder measures. These results provide evidence about the usefulness of virtual reality-based body exposure to elicit FGW and other body-related disturbances in AN patients. Thus, it may be a suitable intervention for reducing these emotional responses and for easing weight recovery.

Virtual Reality Body Exposure Therapy for Anorexia Nervosa. A Case Report With Follow-Up Results.

OBJECTIVE: Exposure-based therapies such as mirror exposure may help to improve the results of classic cognitive behavioral therapy in anorexia nervosa (AN). Virtual reality (VR)-based procedures provide interesting novelties for targeting body-related concerns. This study aimed to provide preliminary evidence of the usefulness of a VR body exposure therapy in a patient diagnosed with AN. METHOD: Fear of gaining weight (FGW), body anxiety, drive for thinness, body image disturbances, body mass index and body-related attentional bias were assessed before and after the intervention, as well as 5 months later. Five sessions of VR body exposure therapy were included within the standard course of cognitive behavioral therapy. The sessions involved a systematic and hierarchical exposure of the patient to a virtual representation of her own silhouette, with the body mass index of the avatar progressively increasing in subsequent sessions. RESULTS: After the intervention, there was a clear reduction in AN symptoms such as the FGW, drive for thinness, body-related anxiety and dissatisfaction. Body mass index values rose continuously during the intervention and reached healthy levels. Finally, there was a notable change in the dysfunctional body-related attentional bias. Almost all these improvements were maintained after 5 months, except for the FGW. CONCLUSION: To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to focus on treating the FGW and body-related concerns in AN using a VR-based paradigm. To pursue this study further and assess the effectiveness of this new VR software, larger controlled clinical trials are needed.

Alternatives to inpatient treatment in adolescents with anorexia nervosa: Effectiveness and characteristics of a new intensive model of day patient treatment.

INTRODUCTION: Inpatient Treatment (IT) is the treatment of choice for moderate or severely ill adolescents with Anorexia Nervosa (AN). Nevertheless, it is expensive, and the risk for relapse or readmissions is high. A less costly alternative to IT is Day Patient Treatment (DP), which may also help to avoid relapses and readmissions because facilitates transition from hospital to community treatment. AIM: To assess the effectiveness of the 11-hour DP program for Eating Disorders (DP-ED-11h), a new intensive DP treatment for adolescents with AN, with respect to weight recovery, avoidance of hospital admission and decrease of Length of Stay (LoS). METHOD: A longitudinal, naturalistic study was carried out analysing clinical and sociodemographic variables from 77 patients with AN who were consecutively discharged from DP-ED-11h, during years 2015-2016. RESULTS: There were 77 discharges. The average age was 14.4 years old (SD: 1.62). The LoS at DP-ED-11h was 28.9 days (SD: 18.5). The mean body mass index increased significantly at discharge (17.2 vs. 17.9, p<0.001) and at 12 months follow- up (17.9 vs. 19.3, p<0.001). Twenty nine (70.8%) of the patients treated at DP-ED-11h, who came from a less intensive setting, avoided an admission. Fourteen (18.2%) required readmission at DP-ED-11h within two years. The LoS at IT was significantly reduced (from 33 to 24 days, p<0.043). CONCLUSION: DP-ED-11h has shown to be an effective resource as an alternative to IT for adolescents with moderate to severe AN. This new model has cost-effectiveness implications as it is a safe resource and is less costly than IT.

Alternativas a la hospitalización total en adolescentes con anorexia nerviosa: Eficacia y características de un nuevo modelo intensivo de tratamiento en hospital de día / Alternatives to inpatient treatment in adolescents with anorexia nervosa: Effectiveness and characteristics of a new intensive model of day patient treatment

INTRODUCCIÓN: La Hospitalización Total (HT) es el tratamiento de elección para adolescentes con Anorexia Nerviosa (AN) moderada-grave. Sin embargo, ésta es costosa y el riesgo de recaída o reingresos es alto. Una alternativa menos costosa es la Hospitalización Parcial (HP), que puede ayudar a evitar recaídas y reingresos porque facilita la transición del hospital al tratamiento comunitario. OBJETIVO: Evaluar la eficacia de un tratamiento intensivo en HP para adolescentes con AN, el programa de HP para Trastornos de la Conducta Alimentaria (TCA) de 11 horas (HP-TCA-11h), respecto a la recuperación ponderal, evitar ingresos y disminuir estancias en HT. MÉTODO: Se realizó un estudio longitudinal y naturalístico que analizó las variables clínicas y socio-demográficas de los pacientes con AN que fueron dados de alta consecutivamente del HP-TCA-11h, durante los años 2015-2016. RESULTADOS: Se realizaron 77 altas. La edad media fue de 14.4 años (DE: 1.62). La estancia media fue de 28.9 días (DE: 18.5). La media del índice de masa corporal aumentó significativamente al alta (17.2 frente a 17.9, p < 0.001) y a los 12 meses de seguimiento (17.9 frente a 19.3, p < 0.001). Veintinueve (70.8%) pacientes tratados en HP-TCA-11h, que vinieron de un recurso menos intensivo, evitaron el ingreso en HT. Catorce (18.2%) requirieron un reingreso en HP-TCA-11h en dos años. La estancia media en HT disminuyó significativamente (de 33 a 24 días, p < 0.043). CONCLUSIÓN: HP-TCA-11h ha demostrado ser un recurso eficaz como alternativa a la HT para adolescentes con AN moderada-grave. Este nuevo modelo tiene implicaciones coste-efectivas ya que es un recurso seguro y menos costoso que la HT

INTRODUCTION: Inpatient Treatment (IT) is the treatment of choice for moderate or severely ill adolescents with An-orexia Nervosa (AN). Nevertheless, it is expensive, and the risk for relapse or readmissions is high. A less costly alterna-tive to IT is Day Patient Treatment (DP), which may also help to avoid relapses and readmissions because facilitates tran-sition from hospital to community treatment. AIM: To assess the effectiveness of the 11-hour DP pro-gram for Eating Disorders (DP-ED-11h), a new intensive DP treatment for adolescents with AN, with respect to weight recovery, avoidance of hospital admission and decrease of Length of Stay (LoS). METHOD: A longitudinal, naturalistic study was carried out analysing clinical and sociodemographic variables from 77 patients with AN who were consecutively discharged from DP-ED-11h, during years 2015-2016. RESULTS: There were 77 discharges. The average age was 14.4 years old (SD: 1.62). The LoS at DP-ED-11h was 28.9 days (SD: 18.5). The mean body mass index increased significantly at discharge (17.2 vs.17.9, p < 0.001) and at 12 months fol-low-up (17.9 vs.19.3, p < 0.001). Twenty nine (70.8%) of the patients treated at DP-ED-11h, who came from a less inten-sive setting, avoided an admission. Fourteen (18.2%) required readmission at DP-ED-11h within two years. The LoS at IT was significantly reduced (from 33 to 24 days, p < 0.043). CONCLUSIONS: DP-ED-11h has shown to be an effective resource as an alternative to IT for adolescents with moder-ate to severe AN. This new model has cost-effectiveness im-plications as it is a safe resource and is less costly than IT

Pharmacoepidemiology of Tourette and Chronic Tic Disorders in Sweden 2005-2013.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring "real world" dispensation patterns over time is important to build the evidence base for safe and efficient use of psychotropic drugs. In this study, we aimed to comprehensively examine the patterns of psychotropic drug dispensations in patients with Tourette and chronic tic disorders (TD/CTD) in Sweden between 2005 and 2013. METHODS: A cohort of 6979 TD/CTD patients was identified through the Swedish National Patient Register. Their drug dispensation patterns, collected in the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register, were examined between July 1, 2005 and December 31, 2013. Frequencies of drug dispensations were further stratified by gender and comorbidities. Additionally, differences in the patterns of dispensation in children and adolescents versus adults in the last year of the follow-up were examined, as well as the time trends of the dispensations over the 8-year study period. RESULTS: A total of 5299 (75.9%) TD/CTD patients were dispensed at least one drug during the study period. The most frequently dispensed medications were attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) drugs (53.8%), antidepressants (50.7%), hypnotics/sedatives (41.7%), and antipsychotics (41.5%). Most of the medicated patients (72.1%) were dispensed more than one drug during the study period. Patterns of dispensation varied according to patient's gender, associated comorbidities, and age group. Dispensation of quetiapine and aripiprazole, antiadrenergics, ADHD drugs, antiepileptics, and hypnotics/sedatives and anxiolytics (particularly the nonbenzodiazepine types) significantly increased over time, whereas dispensation of antidepressants, typical antipsychotics, and benzodiazepine-based anxiolytics significantly decreased over the study period. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term monitoring of these drug dispensation patterns and the study of both their beneficial and adverse effects is warranted.

Ideación suicida y conductas autolesivas en adolescentes con Trastornos de la Conducta Alimentaria / Suicidal ideation and self-injurious behavior in adolescents with eating disorders

Introducción. Es conocida la presencia de ideas suicidas y comportamientos autolesivos en pacientes con Trastornos de la Conducta Alimentaria (TCA), sin embargo, esta asociación no está claramente definida empíricamente. El objetivo del estudio es determinar la prevalencia de ideación suicida y conductas autolesivas en adolescentes con TCA. Un segundo objetivo es estudiar la asociación entre conducta autolesiva e ideación suicida, gravedad de la sintomatología alimentaria, depresiva, ansiosa, motivación para el cambio y perfeccionismo. Metodología. Se evaluaron a 109 pacientes (edad media: 14,74 años (DE:1,53); 87,2% mujeres) con el Inventario de TCA (EDI-2), el Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI-II), el Inventario de Ansiedad Estado/Rasgo (STAI), la Escala de Perfeccionismo en Niños y Adolescentes (CAPS) y el Cuestionario de Etapas de Cambio en la Anorexia Nerviosa (ANSOCQ). Resultados. Cuarenta y siete pacientes (43,1%) presentaron ideación suicida y 34 (31,2%) conductas autolesivas. La presencia de ideación suicida no discriminó entre pacientes TCA con y sin comportamiento autolesivo. Los pacientes con comportamiento autolesivo presentaron una puntuación significativamente mayor en todas las escalas del EDI-2, a excepción de Miedo a Madurar, en la puntuación total del BDI-II, STAI y en la CAPS. Se encontró una asociación entre la conducta autolesiva y la motivación para el cambio. Conclusiones. Un porcentaje importante de adolescentes con TCA presentan ideación suicida y comportamientos autolesivos, siendo el perfil psicopatológico de estos pacientes más grave. La presencia de ideación suicida en adolescentes con TCA no tiene necesariamente implicaciones con la conducta autolesiva, este comportamiento podría explicarse como consecuencia de la necesidad de regular emociones negativas intensas (AU)

Introduction. The presence of suicidal thoughts and self-injurious behaviors in patients with eating disorders (ED) is well-known; however, this association is currently not defined empirically. The aim of the study is to determine the prevalence of suicidal ideation and self-harm in adolescents with eating disorders. A second objective is to study the association between self-injurious behavior and suicidal ideation, severity of eating disorder symptoms and symptoms of depression and anxiety, motivation to change and perfectionism. Methodology. We evaluated 109 patients (mean age, 14.74 years (SD: 1.53); 87.2% female) using the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-2), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (CAPS) and the Anorexia Nervosa Stages of Change Questionnaire (ANSOCQ). Results. Forty-seven patients (43.1%) had suicidal ideation and 34 (31.2%), self-injurious behavior. The presence of suicidal ideation did not discriminate between patients with or without self-injurious behavior. Patients who self-harm had significantly higher scores on all scales of the EDI-2, except for ‘maturity fears’, in the total scores of BDI-II, STAI and CAPS. An association between self-injurious behavior and motivation to change was found. Conclusions. A significant percentage of adolescents with eating disorders present suicidal ideation and self-injurious behavior, making the psychopathological profile of these patients more severe. The presence of suicidal ideation in adolescents with eating disorders does not necessarily mply that they have self-injurious behavior; rather, such behavior could be a result of the need to regulate intense negative emotions (AU)

Suicidal ideation and self-injurious behavior in adolescents with eating disorders.

INTRODUCTION: The presence of suicidal thoughts and self-injurious behaviors in patients with eating disorders (ED) is well-known; however, this association is currently not defined empirically. The aim of the study is to determine the prevalence of suicidal ideation and self-harm in adolescents with eating disorders. A second objective is to study the association between self-injurious behavior and suicidal ideation, severity of eating disorder symptoms and symptoms of depression and anxiety, motivation to change and perfectionism. METHODOLOGY: We evaluated 109 patients (mean age, 14.74 years (SD: 1.53); 87.2% female) using the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-2), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (CAPS) and the Anorexia Nervosa Stages of Change Questionnaire (ANSOCQ). RESULTS: Forty-seven patients (43.1%) had suicidal ideation and 34 (31.2%), self-injurious behavior. The presence of suicidal ideation did not discriminate between patients with or without self-injurious behavior. Patients who self-harm had significantly higher scores on all scales of the EDI-2, except for “maturity fears”, in the total scores of BDI-II, STAI and CAPS. An association between selfinjurious behavior and motivation to change was found. CONCLUSIONS: A significant percentage of adolescents with eating disorders present suicidal ideation and selfinjurious behavior, making the psychopathological profile of these patients more severe. The presence of suicidal ideation in adolescents with eating disorders does not necessarily imply that they have self-injurious behavior; rather, such behavior could be a result of the need to regulate intense negative emotions.