Raptors bred in captivity: semen characteristics and assisted reproduction outcome in goshawk (Accipiter gentilis).

Three sexually mature goshawks reared in captivity and imprinted on humans to express reproductive behavior according to the cooperative method were studied for three consecutive breeding seasons to assess the quality of their sperm. The following parameters were analyzed: ejaculate volume and sperm concentration, motility, viability, and morphology. Ejaculate volume, sperm concentration and motility fluctuated along the reproductive season, revealing the greatest quality of the reproductive material at full springtime (i.e., April). Motility of the sperm collected in March strongly reduced with age, contrary to samples collected in April or May. Sperm viability was not influenced by either age or month of collection within each season. Ultrastructural investigations provided information on normal sperm morphology for the first time in this species. The morphological categories of sperm defects in fresh semen, present at low percentages, are also described. Functional analyses (perivitelline membrane assay and artificial inseminations) confirmed the good quality of the semen obtained using the cooperative method. The reported data provide the basis for further studies aimed at developing protocols to improve the outcome of artificial insemination and semen cryopreservation in the goshawk as well as other bird of prey species.

Carcass Yields and Meat Composition of Male and Female Italian Slow-Growing Chicken Breeds: Bianca di Saluzzo and Bionda Piemontese.

The slaughter performance and meat quality of two native Italian chicken breeds, Bionda Piemontese (BP, n = 64) and Bianca di Saluzzo (BS, n = 64), were investigated. Two-way ANOVA, considering breed, sex, and their interaction, was used to compare the properties of birds slaughtered at 5, 6, 7, and 8 months of age. Subsequently, data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and the Duncan test to evaluate the differences between slaughter ages. The BP breed produced a better carcass yield than BS at 5, 7, and 8 months of age (p < 0.05). Breast moisture and crude protein contents were influenced by gender, and were higher in males than in females (p < 0.05). By contrast, the crude fat content was higher in females than in males (p < 0.05). The saturated fatty acid content of breast meat increased as the birds aged in both breeds (p < 0.05). The polyunsaturated fatty acid content of both breast and thigh meat was higher in males than in females (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05, respectively). In general, slaughtering at 7 months was associated with the best slaughter and meat quality characteristics in both breeds. Moreover, from a nutritional point of view, the characteristics of the meat from male birds were preferable to those of meat from females.

Genetic Diversity of 17 Autochthonous Italian Chicken Breeds and Their Extinction Risk Status.

The preservation of genetic variability of autochthonous poultry breeds is crucial in global biodiversity. A recent report revealed small breed size and potential risk of extinction of all native Italian poultry breeds; therefore, a correct assessment of their genetic diversity is necessary for a suitable management of their preservation. In this work, we provided an overview of the contribution to poultry biodiversity of some Italian autochthonous breeds reared in conservation centers devoted to local biodiversity preservation. The level of genetic diversity, molecular kinship, inbreeding, contribution to overall genetic diversity, and rate of extinction of each breed were analyzed with a set of 14 microsatellite loci in 17 autochthonous chicken breeds. To evaluate genetic variability, total number (Na), and effective number (Ne) of alleles, observed (Ho) and expected (He) heterozygosity, and F (Wright's inbreeding coefficient) index were surveyed. The contribution of each analyzed breed to genetic diversity of the whole dataset was assessed using MolKin3.0; global genetic diversity and allelic richness contributions were evaluated. All the investigated loci were polymorphic; 209 alleles were identified (94 of which private alleles). The average number of alleles per locus was 3.62, and the effective number of alleles was 2.27. The Ne resulted lower in all breeds due to the presence of low-frequency alleles that can be easily lost by genetic drift, thus reducing the genetic variability of the breeds, and increasing their risk of extinction. The global molecular kinship was 27%, the average breed molecular kinship was 53%, and the mean inbreeding rate 43%, with a self-coancestry of 78%. Wright's statistical analysis showed a 41% excess of homozygous due to breed genetic differences (34%) and to inbreeding within the breed (9%). Genetic variability analysis showed that 11 breeds were in endangered status. The contribution to Italian poultry genetic diversity, estimated as global genetic diversity, and ranged from 30.2 to 98.5%. In conclusion, the investigated breeds maintain a unique genetic pattern and play an important role in global Italian poultry biodiversity, providing a remarkable contribution to genetic variability.

From the Semen Collection Method to the Hatchlings: The Use of Cryopreserved Sperm from Pheasants Fed an Antioxidant-Enriched Diet.

A widely used approach to preserving genetic diversity in birds involves the cryopreservation of semen. In this process, cells are subjected to physical and chemical stresses, but not all cell species respond equally. Many studies have been published on the freezing-thawing of sperm cells from a wide variety of domestic and wild species, on issues ranging from the sperm quality to different protocols, fertilisation success rates, etc. Nevertheless, very little information is available on the common pheasant. To fill this gap, the aim of this study was to describe the pheasant semen collection method, evaluate some qualitative parameters of sperm from males fed an antioxidant-enriched diet, and to test the in vivo fertilising capacity of the cryo-preserved semen. The freezing protocol employed involved pellets thawed by the hotplate method. Dimethylacetamide was used as a cryoprotectant at a final concentration of 6%. A total of six AIs were performed at 3-4-day intervals on a total of 40 females with doses of 35 × 106 of normal live thawed sperm. Males receiving the enriched diet produce more abundant and concentrated ejaculates. Freeze-thawed sperm lost 85% of their initial mobility, and diet influenced neither sperm mobility nor viability. The enriched diet did improve the number of normal freeze-thawed cells and was associated with a lower sperm fracture incidence. Regardless of the dietary group, frozen-thawed sperm resulted in a fertility rate of 30%, with 8-9 chicks hatching for every 100 eggs incubated.

Optimization of a Protocol for the Cryopreservation of Sperm in Pellets for the Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus mongolicus).

The sperm of each avian species and breed have unique characteristics that render them more or less susceptible to the freezing-thawing process; therefore, a suitable cryopreservation protocol that is specific for the sperm of each type of bird is needed. In this context, little information about the common pheasant's sperm is available. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test different parameters at each step of the process of freezing into pellets and thawing to detect the least deleterious parameter settings. Sixteen different protocols were tested by studying two levels in each of the four steps (dilution, equilibration at 5 °C, final dimethylacetamide concentration, and dimethylacetamide equilibration time) comprising the freezing process. The pheasant sperm exhibited a high susceptibility to the damage caused by freezing into pellets; however, the survival of the sperm reached 29%, and the greatest recovered mobility was 22%. The mobility of the sperm was affected by the dilution and the dimethylacetamide concentration, and the viability of the sperm was affected by the equilibration at 5 °C and the dimethylacetamide equilibration. The protocols that caused the least damage to the pheasant sperm were found to be those with higher dilution rates, 10 min of equilibration at 5 °C, and 6% dimethylacetamide equilibrated for 1 or 5 min. In the present study, we individualise some applicable parameters for certain critical steps of the freezing-thawing process; however, further investigations are needed in order to improve upon and complete a suitable protocol for the cryopreservation and thawing of pheasant sperm.

Overview of Native Chicken Breeds in Italy: Conservation Status and Rearing Systems in Use.

The most reared species of farm animal around the world is the chicken. However, the intensification of livestock systems has led to a gradual increase in the concentration of a limited number of breeds, resulting in substantial erosion to the genetic pool. The initial step of an 'animal conservation program' entails establishing the actual conservation statuses of the breeds concerned in a defined area; in this case, in Italy. To this end, a survey of breeds was performed by means of a census questionnaire divided into two parts. The first part collected information on breeds, breeders, housing facilities, and management aspects, the results of which are presented here. The second part of the questionnaire regarded chicken products and their markets, and these data will be reported in a second paper. The breed status of six chicken breeds was shown to be exceptionally worrying, with total numbers ranging from just 18 to 186 birds. Population sizes exceeding 1000 birds was identified for just four breeds, the maximum being 3400. Some improvements in status were noted in relation to breeds which had been the subject of conservation efforts in the past. The two most common breeds reported are the Bionda Piemontese, a double-purpose breed, and the Livorno egg-laying hen. Collo Nudo Italiano, Millefiori Piemontese, Pollo Trentino, and Tirolese chicken breeds and the Castano Precoce turkey breed were not listed by breeders at all. The most reported turkey breeds are the Bronzato Comune and the Ermellinato di Rovigo. The population sizes of native Italian poultry breeds were shown to be generally poor. Italian poultry farmers and the population at large are largely ignorant about indigenous poultry breeds. Thus, promoting the virtues of Italian breeds would help their conservation by encouraging breeders to rear these birds and consumers to buy their products. The identification of strategies to facilitate access to pure breed birds is essential, and will require the collaboration of university research centers, public entities, and breeders. The results presented in this paper constitute the initial part of a more complex conservation program.

Overview of Native Chicken Breeds in Italy: Small Scale Production and Marketing.

The intensive use of high-performing strains in poultry production has led to the extinction of several autochthonous chicken breeds and, consequently, loss of genetic variability. Interest in saving biodiversity is growing rapidly and has become a major objective worldwide. The aim of this study was to shed light on the production trends of native Italian poultry breeds and the related market. A questionnaire, which asked about the production cycles, the number of animals and table eggs produced per year and their retail prices was completed by 121 breeders across Italy. The surveyed breeders were divided into two categories: breeders conducting an agrozootechnical farm, referred to as 'farmers' (F); and breeders keeping chickens as backyard poultry, referred to as 'fancy breeders' (FB). Analysis of the data acquired indicated that animals were mainly slaughtered between 6 and 12 months of age, with F processing more animals per year. The same production trend was observed for table eggs. The recorded retail prices of native chicken products were higher than those for conventional products, but similar to those reported for valuable niche poultry products, such as the Poulet de Bresse in France and organic eggs. Knowledge about these highly valuable markets should be used to encourage the use of local breeds in alternative poultry farming and help protect biodiversity.

Performance of Slow-Growing Male Muscovy Ducks Exposed to Different Dietary Levels of Quebracho Tannin.

The study of the nutritional effects of tannins is complex due to the large chemical diversity; consequently, in poultry nutrition the biological responses may vary greatly. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of different levels of dietary Quebracho tannins (QT) on growth and production performance in slow-growing type Muscovy ducks. For this purpose, a 42-d trial was carried out on 126 male ducks (42-d old at start), fed on three levels of dietary QT inclusion in the diet (0% as control diet, vs. 1.5% vs. 2.5% on an as fed basis). Birds were reared under free-range conditions. A linear increase in feed intake as a function of QT inclusion in the diet was observed (p < 0.05). No difference as to final body weight, overall average daily weight gain (ADG) and total feed conversion ratio (FCR) in relation to dietary treatments was observed. Carcass yields were positively improved in QT birds (p < 0.05). No adverse responses were recorded in total blood protein and liver weight. Dietary QT might be safely used up by to 2.5% in 42- to 84-d aged male Muscovy ducks.

Effects of Dietary Quebracho Tannin on Performance Traits and Parasite Load in an Italian Slow-Growing Chicken (White Livorno Breed).

Tannins have shown numerous biological activities and are very appreciated in food animal production, especially for their antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antivirus effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of two levels of dietary Quebracho tannin (QT) on growth and performance traits, and possible effects on intestinal parasite load in Italian White Livorno pullets. A 140-day trial was carried out on 180 35-day-old females, fed on two levels of dietary QT inclusion: 0%, 1% and 2%. Birds were reared under free-range conditions. Dietary Quebracho tannin may be used up to 1% in growing female White Livorno chickens without any adverse effects. The results observed in this study on the use of dietary QT at 2% might have not reflected the real effect on performance traits due to the initial inclusion of dietary QT at 3%. Nevertheless, by reducing QT to 2%, a progressive normalization of body weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio was observed, resulting in compensatory growth. QT was demonstrated to drastically reduce fecal outputs of Nematodes eggs (Ascaridia spp. and Heterakis spp.) and Coccidia oocytes (Eimeria spp.). The inclusion of 2% produced highly dry droppings.

A proteomic approach to identify seminal plasma proteins in roosters (Gallus gallus domesticus).

Considering the interest in avian semen processing and storage, the objective of this study was to identify the domestic fowl seminal plasma proteins using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and mass spectrometry MS/MS. For three times in a 4-month period, seminal plasma was obtained from semen collected from four local male chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) and prepared for two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A total of 83 spots were detected across all gels and analyzed by MALDI-TOF/TOF. Among these spots, 17 have been successfully identified. The most intensely stained spots were recognized as serum albumin, ovotransferrin, alpha-enolase, fatty acid binding protein, thioredoxin, trypsin inhibitor CITI-1 and gallinacin-9. From these proteins, two are characteristic of avian seminal plasma, the ovotransferrin and gallinacin-9, and one is specific of the Gallus species, the chicken trypsin inhibitor CITI-1.