Large-cage occupation and quantum dynamics of hydrogen molecules in sII clathrate hydrates.

Hydrogen clathrate hydrates are ice-like crystalline substances in which hydrogen molecules are trapped inside polyhedral cages formed by the water molecules. Small cages can host only a single H2 molecule, while each large cage can be occupied by up to four H2 molecules. Here, we present a neutron scattering study on the structure of the sII hydrogen clathrate hydrate and on the low-temperature dynamics of the hydrogen molecules trapped in its large cages, as a function of the gas content in the samples. We observe spectral features at low energy transfer (between 1 and 3 meV), and we show that they can be successfully assigned to the rattling motion of a single hydrogen molecule occupying a large water cage. These inelastic bands remarkably lose their intensity with increasing the hydrogen filling, consistently with the fact that the probability of single occupation (as opposed to multiple occupation) increases as the hydrogen content in the sample gets lower. The spectral intensity of the H2 rattling bands is studied as a function of the momentum transfer for partially emptied samples and compared with three distinct quantum models for a single H2 molecule in a large cage: (i) the exact solution of the Schrödinger equation for a well-assessed semiempirical force field, (ii) a particle trapped in a rigid sphere, and (iii) an isotropic three-dimensional harmonic oscillator. The first model provides good agreement between calculations and experimental data, while the last two only reproduce their qualitative trend. Finally, the radial wavefunctions of the three aforementioned models, as well as their potential surfaces, are presented and discussed.

Enthalpy Change from Pure Cubic Ice Ic to Hexagonal Ice Ih.

The preparation of pure cubic ice without hexagonal stacking faults has been realized only recently by del Rosso et al. ( Nat. Mater. 2020, 19, 663-668) and Komatsu et al. ( Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 464). With our present calorimetric study on the transition from pure cubic ice to hexagonal ice we are able to clarify the value of the enthalpy change ΔHc→h to be -37.7 ± 2.3 J mol-1. The transition temperature is identified as 226 K, much higher than in previous work on ice Isd. This is due to a catalytic effect of hexagonal faults on the transition, but even more importantly due to a relaxation exotherm that was not properly identified in the past.

Cubic ice Ic without stacking defects obtained from ice XVII.

Amongst the more than 18 different forms of water ice, only the common hexagonal phase and the cubic phase are present in nature on Earth. Nonetheless, it is now widely recognized that all samples of 'cubic ice' discovered so far do not have a fully cubic crystal structure but instead are stacking-disordered forms of ice I (namely, ice Isd), which contain both hexagonal and cubic stacking sequences of hydrogen-bonded water molecules. Here, we describe a method to obtain large quantities of cubic ice Ic with high structural purity. Cubic ice Ic is formed by heating a powder of D2O ice XVII obtained from annealing of pristine C0 hydrate samples under dynamic vacuum. Neutron diffraction experiments performed on two different instruments and Raman spectroscopy measurements confirm the structural purity of the cubic ice, Ic. These findings contribute to a better understanding of ice I polymorphism and the existence of the two natural ice forms.

Ne- and O2-filled ice XVII: a neutron diffraction study.

Deuterated ice XVII, a metastable solid water polymorph, was filled with Ne and O2 at p ≈ 100 kPa and studied by in situ neutron diffraction (ILL, France). Powder patterns were collected in the ranges of 20-50 K (Ne) and 4.6-90 K (O2). Rietveld refinement and difference Fourier techniques showed that the gas molecules were located inside the hexagonal channels of the host ice. Both Ne atoms and O2 molecules are arranged in a spiral-like configuration off the channel axis, preserving the P6122 symmetry of the host in the case of Ne, but reducing it to P61 in O2. A larger Ne absorption compared to Ne-filled ice II is observed, which is consistent with longer host-guest contacts producing smaller hydrophobic repulsion. In O2-filled ice XVII, instead, short O-D distances (2.37 Å) have attractive character and stabilize the structure.

Hydrogen self-dynamics in diluted liquid mixtures with neon: An inelastic neutron scattering study.

We have measured the dynamic structure factor of liquid neon-hydrogen mixtures (T=30.1 K) at two different H_{2} concentration levels (namely, 3.4% and 10%) making use of inelastic neutron scattering. This system has been selected since the presence of heavy Ne atoms strongly influences the self-dynamics of the H_{2} centers of mass via the formation of short-lived cages, which act both on the vibrational and the diffusive parts of the single-particle motion. After operating a standard data reduction and the subtraction of the Ne signal, experimental neutron spectra were analyzed through a generalization of the Young and Koppel model, and the H_{2} center-of-mass self-dynamic structure factor was finally extracted for the two liquid samples. Important physical quantities (namely, single-particle mean kinetic energy and self-diffusion coefficient) were estimated from the experimental data and then compared with quantum dynamical calculations, which also provided simulations of the velocity autocorrelation functions for Ne atoms and H_{2} centers of mass. The latter estimates, in the framework of the well-known Gaussian approximation, were used to simulate the H_{2} center-of-mass self-dynamic structure factor in the same kinematic range and thermodynamic conditions of the neutron scattering one. The comparison between measured and calculated spectra turned out to be qualitatively good, but some discrepancies, especially in the low-frequency part, seem to reinforce the idea of the existence of relevant non-Gaussian effects as in the case of pure hydrogen and H_{2}-D_{2} mixtures.

New porous water ice metastable at atmospheric pressure obtained by emptying a hydrogen-filled ice.

The properties of some forms of water ice reserve still intriguing surprises. Besides the several stable or metastable phases of pure ice, solid mixtures of water with gases are precursors of other ices, as in some cases they may be emptied, leaving a metastable hydrogen-bound water structure. We present here the first characterization of a new form of ice, obtained from the crystalline solid compound of water and molecular hydrogen called C0-structure filled ice. By means of Raman spectroscopy, we measure the hydrogen release at different temperatures and succeed in rapidly removing all the hydrogen molecules, obtaining a new form of ice (ice XVII). Its structure is determined by means of neutron diffraction measurements. Of paramount interest is that the emptied crystal can adsorb again hydrogen and release it repeatedly, showing a temperature-dependent hysteresis.

Raman Measurements of Pure Hydrogen Clathrate Formation from a Supercooled Hydrogen-Water Solution.

The nucleation and growth of a solid clathrate hydrate from the liquid phase is a process that is even less understood and more difficult to study than the nucleation of a solid phase from a pure liquid. We have employed in situ Raman spectroscopy to study the hydrogen-water supercooled solution undergoing clathrate formation at a pressure of about 2 kbar and temperature of 263 K. Raman light scattering detects unambiguously the H2 molecules inside of clathrate crystallites, which change stoichiometry during growth. The spectral intensity of the hydrogen vibrational band shows the time evolution of the population of the large and small cages, demonstrating that, in the initial stages of clathrate formation, the occupation of the large cages is quite lower than its equilibrium value. From the measurement of the growth rate of the crystallites, we demonstrate that the growth of the clathrate in the liquid is a diffusion-limited process.

Hydrogen self-dynamics in liquid H(2)-D(2) mixtures studied through inelastic neutron scattering.

We have measured the dynamic structure factor of liquid para-hydrogen mixed with normal deuterium (T=20 K) at two different concentration levels using incoherent inelastic neutron scattering. This choice has been made since the presence of D(2} modifies the self-dynamics of H(2) in a highly nontrivial way, acting both on its pseudophononic and its diffusive parts in a tunable way. After an accurate data reduction, recorded neutron spectra were studied through the modified Young and Koppel model and the H(2) center-of-mass self-dynamics structure factor was finally extracted for the two mixtures. Some physical quantities (i.e., self-diffusion coefficient and mean kinetic energy) were determined and compared with accurate quantum calculations, which, in addition, also provided estimates of the velocity autocorrelation function for the H(2) centers of mass. These estimates, in conjunction with the Gaussian approximation, were used to simulate the H(2) center-of-mass self-dynamics structure factor in the same range as the experimental one. The agreement between measured and calculated spectra was globally good, but some discrepancies proved the unquestionable breakdown of the Gaussian approximation in these semiquantum systems at a level comparable to that already observed in pure liquid para-hydrogen.

The HD molecule in small and medium cages of clathrate hydrates: quantum dynamics studied by neutron scattering measurements and computation.

We report inelastic neutron scattering (INS) measurements on molecular hydrogen deuteride (HD) trapped in binary cubic (sII) and hexagonal (sH) clathrate hydrates, performed at low temperature using two different neutron spectrometers in order to probe both energy and momentum transfer. The INS spectra of binary clathrate samples exhibit a rich structure containing sharp bands arising from both the rotational transitions and the rattling modes of the guest molecule. For the clathrates with sII structure, there is a very good agreement with the rigorous fully quantum simulations which account for the subtle effects of the anisotropy, angular and radial, of the host cage on the HD microscopic dynamics. The sH clathrate sample presents a much greater challenge, due to the uncertainties regarding the crystal structure, which is known only for similar crystals with different promoter, but nor for HD (or H2) plus methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE-d12).

Spectroscopic and thermodynamic properties of molecular hydrogen dissolved in water at pressures up to 200 MPa.

We have measured the Raman Q-branch of hydrogen in a solution with water at a temperature of about 280 K and at pressures from 20 to 200 MPa. From a least-mean-square fitting analysis of the broad Raman Q-branch, we isolated the contributions from the four lowest individual roto-vibrational lines. The vibrational lines were narrower than the pure rotational Raman lines of hydrogen dissolved in water measured previously, but significantly larger than in the gas. The separations between these lines were found to be significantly smaller than in gaseous hydrogen and their widths were slightly increasing with pressure. The lines were narrowing with increasing rotational quantum number. The Raman frequencies of all roto-vibrational lines were approaching the values of gas phase hydrogen with increasing pressure. Additionally, from the comparison of the integrated intensity signal of Q-branch of hydrogen to the integrated Raman signal of the water bending mode, we have obtained the concentration of hydrogen in a solution with water along the 280 K isotherm. Hydrogen solubility increases slowly with pressure, and no deviation from a smooth behaviour was observed, even reaching thermodynamic conditions very close to the transition to the stable hydrogen hydrate. The analysis of the relative hydrogen concentration in solution on the basis of a simple thermodynamic model has allowed us to obtain the molar volume for the hydrogen gas/water solution. Interestingly, the volume relative to one hydrogen molecule in solution does not decrease with pressure and, at high pressure, is larger than the volume pertinent to one molecule of water. This is in favour of the theory of hydrophobic solvation, for which a larger and more stable structure of the water molecules is expected around a solute molecule.

Experimental inelastic neutron scattering spectrum of hydrogen hexagonal clathrate-hydrate compared with rigorous quantum simulations.

We have performed high-resolution inelastic neutron scattering (INS) measurements on binary hydrogen clathrate hydrates exhibiting the hexagonal structure (sH). Two samples, differing only in the ortho/para fraction of hydrogen, were prepared using heavy water and methyl tert-butyl ether as the promoter in its perdeuterated form. The INS spectrum of the translation-rotation (TR) excitations of the guest H2 molecule was obtained by subtracting the very weak signal due to the D2O lattice modes. By means of a subtraction procedure, it has been possible to obtain separately the spectra of caged p-H2 and o-H2. sH clathrates are comprised of three distinct types of cages, two of which, differing in shape and size, are each occupied by one H2 molecule only. Both contribute to the measured INS spectrum which is, therefore, rather complex and challenging to assign unambiguously. To assist with the interpretation, the INS spectra are calculated accurately utilizing the quantum methodology which incorporates the coupled five-dimensional TR energy levels and wave functions of the H2 molecule confined in each type of nanocage. The computed INS spectra are highly realistic and reflect the complexity of the coupled TR dynamics of the guest H2 in the anisotropic confining environment. The simulated INS spectra of p-H2 and o-H2 in the small and medium cages are compared with the experimental data, and are indispensable for their interpretation.

Neutron scattering measurements and computation of the quantum dynamics of hydrogen molecules trapped in the small and large cages of clathrate hydrates.

We report inelastic neutron scattering (INS) measurements on molecular hydrogen trapped in simple (D2O) and binary (D2O plus perdeuterated tetrahydrofuran) clathrate hydrates, performed at a low temperature using two different neutron spectrometers to probe both energy and momentum transfer. The INS spectra of binary clathrate samples exhibit a rich structure containing sharp bands arising from both the rotational transitions and the rattling modes of the guest H2 molecule. They agree well with the rigorous fully quantum simulations, which account for the subtle effects of the anisotropy, angular and radial, of the host cage on the H2 microscopic dynamics and the resulting spectra. The simple clathrate samples present a much greater challenge, due to the multiple H2 occupancy of the large cages, which makes the quantum calculations an extremely difficult task. In addition, we discuss in detail various physical aspects of the experimental and simulated INS spectra, such as their temperature dependence, the effects of the cage geometry, and the different features associated with the ortho-hydrogen and para-hydrogen species.

High pressure optical cell for synthesis and in situ Raman spectroscopy of hydrogen clathrate hydrates.

We report the design, realization, and test of a high-pressure optical cell that we have used to measure the Raman spectra of hydrogen clathrate hydrates, synthesized in situ by the application of 200-300 MPa of gas pressure on solid water. The optical apparatus is mounted on a cryogenic system so to allow measurements and sample treatment at any temperature between 300 and 20 K. A capillary pipe is connected to the inside of the cell to allow the gas flow into and out of the cell, and to regulate the internal pressure at any value from 0 to 300 MPa. In the experimental test described in this paper, the cell has been partly filled, at room temperature, with a small amount of water, then frozen at 263 K before injecting hydrogen gas, at pressure of 150 MPa, into the cell. This procedure has permitted to study hydrogen clathrate formation, by measuring Raman spectra as a function of time.

High pressure synthesis and in situ Raman spectroscopy of H2 and HD clathrate hydrates.

By means of a newly constructed high pressure and low temperature optical apparatus we have measured the Raman spectra of H(2) and HD simple clathrate hydrates, synthesized in situ by the application of more than 2500 bar gas pressure on solid water. High resolution spectra of the molecular vibration have been measured at low temperature (about 20 K). In the case of HD this band is simpler than in the case of H(2), where the presence of the ortho- and para-species complicated the interpretation of the spectrum. We have determined frequency positions of the bands arising from multiple occupancy of the large cages of the sII clathrate, some of which are almost superimposed. The intensity of the bands gives information on the average and distribution of cage occupation, and of the ortho-para (o-p) ratio of H(2) molecules. Hydrogen o-p conversion rate is measured, for molecules in the small cages and in the large cages, and it is observed that these are different. A model considering both intrinsic and extrinsic conversion processes is applied to the measured data. The intrinsic conversion rate so derived is compared favorably to that measured for pure hydrogen in different situations.

Experimental and theoretical analysis of the rotational Raman spectrum of hydrogen molecules in clathrate hydrates.

The Raman spectra of H(2) and HD molecules in simple hydrogen and binary hydrogen-tetrahydrofuran clathrate hydrates have been measured at temperatures as low as 20 K. The rotational bands of trapped molecules in simple and binary hydrates have been analyzed, and the contributions originating from hydrogen molecules in the large cages have been separated from those in the small cages. A theoretical model, consisting in rigid cages enclosing interacting hydrogen molecules, has been exploited to calculate, on the basis of quantum mechanics, the Raman intensity of the rotational transitions for up to two interacting molecules in one cage. A comparison with experiment leads to a clear interpretation of sidebands appearing in the Raman rotational lines. The quantitative agreement between theory and experiment obtained in some cases clarifies the importance of the choice of the interaction potential, and of the proton disorder in the clathrate crystal.

Low temperature Raman spectra of hydrogen in simple and binary clathrate hydrates.

The Raman spectrum of hydrogen clathrate hydrates has been measured, as a function of temperature, down to 20 K. Rotational bands of H(2) and HD, trapped into the small cages of simple (H(2)O-H(2)) and binary (H(2)O-THF-H(2)) hydrates, have been analyzed and the fivefold degeneracy of the molecular J=2 rotational level has been discussed in the light of the available theoretical calculations. The vibrational frequencies of H(2) molecules encapsulated in the large cages of simple hydrates turn out to be well separated from those pertaining to the small cages. Comparison with the equivalent D(2) spectra allowed us to assign the large cavity vibrational frequencies to three couples of Q(1)(1)-Q(1)(0) H(2) vibrational modes. Populations of ortho and para species have been measured as a function of time from rotational spectra and the rate of ortho-para conversion has been estimated for both simple and binary hydrates. We suggest, using the H(2) vibrational spectra, a model to analyze the cage population in simple hydrates.