3-O-Methyltolcapone and Its Lipophilic Analogues Are Potent Inhibitors of Transthyretin Amyloidogenesis with High Permeability and Low Toxicity.

Transthyretin (TTR) is an amyloidogenic homotetramer involved in the transport of thyroxine in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. To date, more than 130 TTR point mutations are known to destabilise the TTR tetramer, leading to its extracellular pathological aggregation accumulating in several organs, such as heart, peripheral and autonomic nerves, and leptomeninges. Tolcapone is an FDA-approved drug for Parkinson's disease that has been repurposed as a TTR stabiliser. We characterised 3-O-methyltolcapone and two newly synthesized lipophilic analogues, which are expected to be protected from the metabolic glucuronidation that is responsible for the lability of tolcapone in the organism. Immunoblotting assays indicated the high degree of TTR stabilisation, coupled with binding selectivity towards TTR in diluted plasma of 3-O-methyltolcapone and its lipophilic analogues. Furthermore, in vitro toxicity data showed their several-fold improved neuronal and hepatic safety compared to tolcapone. Calorimetric and structural data showed that both T4 binding sites of TTR are occupied by 3-O-methyltolcapone and its lipophilic analogs, consistent with an effective TTR tetramer stabilisation. Moreover, in vitro permeability studies showed that the three compounds can effectively cross the blood-brain barrier, which is a prerequisite for the inhibition of TTR amyloidogenesis in the cerebrospinal fluid. Our data demonstrate the relevance of 3-O-methyltolcapone and its lipophilic analogs as potent inhibitors of TTR amyloidogenesis.

A Comparative Analysis of Punicalagin Interaction with PDIA1 and PDIA3 by Biochemical and Computational Approaches.

In a previous work, it was shown that punicalagin, an active ingredient of pomegranate, is able to bind to PDIA3 and inhibit its disulfide reductase activity. Here we provide evidence that punicalagin can also bind to PDIA1, the main expressed form of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI). In this comparative study, the affinity and the effect of punicalagin binding on each protein were evaluated, and a computational approach was used to identify putative binding sites. Punicalagin binds to either PDIA1 or PDIA3 with a similar affinity, but the inhibition efficacy on protein reductase activity is higher for PDIA3. Additionally, punicalagin differently affects the thermal denaturation profile of both proteins. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations led to propose a punicalagin binding mode on PDIA1 and PDIA3, identifying the binding sites at the redox domains a' in two different pockets, suggesting different effects of punicalagin on proteins' structure. This study provides insights to develop punicalagin-based ligands, to set up a rational design for PDIA3 selective inhibitors, and to dissect the molecular determinant to modulate the protein activity.

Biophysical characterization of the complex between the iron-responsive transcription factor Fep1 and DNA.

Fep1 is an iron-responsive GATA-type transcriptional repressor present in numerous fungi. The DNA-binding domain of this protein is characterized by the presence of two zinc fingers of the Cys2-Cys2 type and a Cys-X5-Cys-X8-Cys-X2-Cys motif located between the two zinc fingers, that is involved in binding of a [2Fe-2S] cluster. In this work, biophysical characterization of the DNA-binding domain of Pichia pastoris Fep1 and of the complex of the protein with cognate DNA has been undertaken. The results obtained by analytical ultracentrifugation sedimentation velocity, small-angle X-ray scattering and differential scanning calorimetry indicate that Fep1 is a natively unstructured protein that is able to bind DNA forming 1:1 and 2:1 complexes more compact than the individual partners. Complex formation takes place independently of the presence of a stoichiometric [2Fe-2S] cluster, suggesting that the cluster may play a role in recruiting other protein(s) required for regulation of transcription in response to changes in intracellular iron levels.

Insights into the GTP-dependent allosteric control of c-di-GMP hydrolysis from the crystal structure of PA0575 protein from Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Bis-(3'-5')-cyclic diguanylic acid (c-di-GMP) belongs to the class of cyclic dinucleotides, key carriers of cellular information in prokaryotic and eukaryotic signal transduction pathways. In bacteria, the intracellular levels of c-di-GMP and their complex physiological outputs are dynamically regulated by environmental and internal stimuli, which control the antagonistic activities of diguanylate cyclases (DGCs) and c-di-GMP specific phosphodiesterases (PDEs). Allostery is one of the major modulators of the c-di-GMP-dependent response. Both the c-di-GMP molecule and the proteins interacting with this second messenger are characterized by an extraordinary structural plasticity, which has to be taken into account when defining and possibly predicting c-di-GMP-related processes. Here, we report a structure-function relationship study on the catalytic portion of the PA0575 protein from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, bearing both putative DGC and PDE domains. The kinetic and structural studies indicate that the GGDEF-EAL portion is a GTP-dependent PDE. Moreover, the crystal structure confirms the high degree of conformational flexibility of this module. We combined structural analysis and protein engineering studies to propose the possible molecular mechanism guiding the nucleotide-dependent allosteric control of catalysis; we propose that the role exerted by GTP via the GGDEF domain is to allow the two EAL domains to form a dimer, the species competent to enter PDE catalysis.

Punicalagin, an active pomegranate component, is a new inhibitor of PDIA3 reductase activity.

BACKGROUND: Polyphenolic compounds isolated from pomegranate fruit possess several pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antigenotoxic and anticoagulant activities. The present work focuses the attention on PDIA3 interaction with punicalagin and ellagic acid, the most predominant components of pomegranate extracts. PDIA3, a member of the protein disulfide isomerase family involved in several cellular functions, is associated with different human diseases and it has the potential to be a pharmacological target. METHODS: The interaction of polyphenols with PDIA3 purified protein was explored by fluorescence quenching and calorimetric techniques and their effect on PDIA3 activity was investigated. RESULTS: A higher affinity was observed for punicalagin which also strongly affects PDIA3 reductase activity in vitro as a non-competitive inhibitor. Isothermal titration calorimetry confirmed the high affinity of punicalagin for PDIA3. Considering the PDIA3 involvement in oxidative cellular stress response observed in neuroblastoma cells after treatment with hydrogen peroxide, a comparative study was conducted to evaluate the effect of punicalagin on wild type and PDIA3-silenced cells. Punicalagin increases the cell sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide in neuroblastoma cells, but this effect is drastically reduced in PDIA3-silenced cells treated in the same experimental conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Punicalagin binds PDIA3 and inhibits its redox activity. Comparative experiments conducted on unsilenced and PDIA3-silenced neuroblastoma cells suggest the potential of punicalagin to modulate PDIA3 reductase activity also in a biological model. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Punicalagin can be used as a new PDIA3 inhibitor and this can provide information on the molecular mechanisms underlying the biological activities of PDIA3 and punicalagin.

Spectroscopic and calorimetric characterization of spermine oxidase and its association forms.

Spermine oxidase (SMOX) is a flavin-containing enzyme that oxidizes spermine to produce spermidine, 3-aminopropanaldehyde, and hydrogen peroxide. SMOX has been shown to play key roles in inflammation and carcinogenesis; indeed, it is differentially expressed in several human cancer types. Our previous investigation has revealed that SMOX purified after heterologous expression in Escherichia coli actually consists of monomers, covalent homodimers, and other higher-order forms. All association forms oxidize spermine and, after treatment with dithiothreitol, revert to SMOX monomer. Here, we report a detailed investigation on the thermal denaturation of SMOX and its association forms in native and reducing conditions. By combining spectroscopic methods (circular dichroism, fluorescence) and thermal methods (differential scanning calorimetry), we provide new insights into the structure, the transformation, and the stability of SMOX. While the crystal structure of this protein is not available yet, experimental results are interpreted also on the basis of a novel SMOX structural model, obtained in silico exploiting the recently solved acetylspermine oxidase crystal structure. We conclude that while at least one specific intermolecular disulfide bond links two SMOX molecules to form the homodimer, the thermal denaturation profiles can be justified by the presence of at least one intramolecular disulfide bond, which also plays a critical role in the stabilization of the overall three-dimensional SMOX structure, and in particular of its flavin adenine dinucleotide-containing active site.

Behind Resveratrol Stabilization by Carboxymethylated (1,3/1,6)-ß-d-Glucan: Does the Polyphenol Play a Role in Polymer Structural Organization?

Resveratrol stability in solution can be improved by combining the polyphenol with carboxymethylated (1,3/1,6)-ß-d-glucan (CM-glucan), a carbohydrate polymer widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. The present work was undertaken to elucidate the mechanism behind this stabilizing effect. The supramolecular structural, physico-chemical and morphological features of the CM-glucan/resveratrol complex have been studied under different physical and chemical stimuli by means of spectroscopic techniques, microscopy and physical methods such as UV-Visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), spectrofluorimetry, Circular Dichroism (CD), Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Our experimental data indicate that CM-glucan conformational organized architecture in aqueous solution is enhanced in the presence of resveratrol, suggesting that the polyphenol is able to confer a high degree of order to the polymer by a probable cooperative structural organization that results in a long term stabilization for the polyphenol.

Analysis of the interaction of calcitriol with the disulfide isomerase ERp57.

Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D3, can regulate the gene expression through the binding to the nuclear receptor VDR, but it can also display nongenomic actions, acting through a membrane-associated receptor, which has been discovered as the disulfide isomerase ERp57. The aim of our research is to identify the binding sites for calcitriol in ERp57 and to analyze their interaction. We first studied the interaction through bioinformatics and fluorimetric analyses. Subsequently, we focused on two protein mutants containing the predicted interaction domains with calcitriol: abb'-ERp57, containing the first three domains, and a'-ERp57, the fourth domain only. To consolidate the achievements we used the calorimetric approach to the whole protein and its mutants. Our results allow us to hypothesize that the interaction with the a' domain contributes to a greater extent than the other potential binding sites to the dissociation constant, calculated as a Kd of about 10-9 M.

Structural basis for PPAR partial or full activation revealed by a novel ligand binding mode.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors involved in the regulation of the metabolic homeostasis and therefore represent valuable therapeutic targets for the treatment of metabolic diseases. The development of more balanced drugs interacting with PPARs, devoid of the side-effects showed by the currently marketed PPARγ full agonists, is considered the major challenge for the pharmaceutical companies. Here we present a structure-based virtual screening approach that let us identify a novel PPAR pan-agonist with a very attractive activity profile and its crystal structure in the complex with PPARα and PPARγ, respectively. In PPARα this ligand occupies a new pocket whose filling is allowed by the ligand-induced switching of the F273 side chain from a closed to an open conformation. The comparison between this pocket and the corresponding cavity in PPARγ provides a rationale for the different activation of the ligand towards PPARα and PPARγ, suggesting a novel basis for ligand design.

Stability of spermine oxidase to thermal and chemical denaturation: comparison with bovine serum amine oxidase.

Spermine oxidase (SMOX) is a flavin-containing enzyme that specifically oxidizes spermine to produce spermidine, 3-aminopropanaldehyde and hydrogen peroxide. While no crystal structure is available for any mammalian SMOX, X-ray crystallography showed that the yeast Fms1 polyamine oxidase has a dimeric structure. Based on this scenario, we have investigated the quaternary structure of the SMOX protein by native gel electrophoresis, which revealed a composite gel band pattern, suggesting the formation of protein complexes. All high-order protein complexes are sensitive to reducing conditions, showing that disulfide bonds were responsible for protein complexes formation. The major gel band other than the SMOX monomer is the covalent SMOX homodimer, which was disassembled by increasing the reducing conditions, while being resistant to other denaturing conditions. Homodimeric and monomeric SMOXs are catalytically active, as revealed after gel staining for enzymatic activity. An engineered SMOX mutant deprived of all but two cysteine residues was prepared and characterized experimentally, resulting in a monomeric species. High-sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry of SMOX was compared with that of bovine serum amine oxidase, to analyse their thermal stability. Furthermore, enzymatic activity assays and fluorescence spectroscopy were used to gain insight into the unfolding process.

Structural basis of functional diversification of the HD-GYP domain revealed by the Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA4781 protein, which displays an unselective bimetallic binding site.

UNLABELLED: The intracellular level of the bacterial secondary messenger cyclic di-3',5'-GMP (c-di-GMP) is determined by a balance between its biosynthesis and degradation, the latter achieved via dedicated phosphodiesterases (PDEs) bearing a characteristic EAL or HD-GYP domain. We here report the crystal structure of PA4781, one of the three Pseudomonas aeruginosa HD-GYP proteins, which we have previously characterized in vitro. The structure shows a bimetallic active site whose metal binding mode is different from those of both HD-GYP PDEs characterized so far. Purified PA4781 does not contain iron in the active site as for other HD-GYPs, and we show that it binds to a wide range of transition metals with similar affinities. Moreover, the structural features of PA4781 indicate that this is preferentially a pGpG binding protein, as we previously suggested. Our results point out that the structural features of HD-GYPs are more complex than predicted so far and identify the HD-GYP domain as a conserved scaffold which has evolved to preferentially interact with a partner GGDEF but which harbors different functions obtained through diversification of the active site. IMPORTANCE: In bacteria, the capability to form biofilms, responsible for increased pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance, is almost universally stimulated by the second messenger cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP). To design successful strategies for targeting biofilm formation, a detailed characterization of the enzymes involved in c-di-GMP metabolism is crucial. We solved the structure of the HD-GYP domain of PA4781 from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, involved in c-di-GMP degradation. This is the third structure of this class of phosphodiesterases to be solved, and with respect to its homologues, it shows significant differences both in the nature and in the binding mode of the coordinated metals, indicating that HD-GYP proteins are able to fine-tune their function, thereby increasing the chances of the microorganism to adapt to different environmental needs.

Structural basis of the transactivation deficiency of the human PPARγ F360L mutant associated with familial partial lipodystrophy.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are transcription factors that regulate glucose and lipid metabolism. The role of PPARs in several chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, obesity and atherosclerosis is well known and, for this reason, they are the targets of antidiabetic and hypolipidaemic drugs. In the last decade, some rare mutations in human PPARγ that might be associated with partial lipodystrophy, dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance and colon cancer have emerged. In particular, the F360L mutant of PPARγ (PPARγ2 residue 388), which is associated with familial partial lipodystrophy, significantly decreases basal transcriptional activity and impairs stimulation by synthetic ligands. To date, the structural reason for this defective behaviour is unclear. Therefore, the crystal structure of PPARγ F360L together with the partial agonist LT175 has been solved and the mutant has been characterized by circular-dichroism spectroscopy (CD) in order to compare its thermal stability with that of the wild-type receptor. The X-ray analysis showed that the mutation induces dramatic conformational changes in the C-terminal part of the receptor ligand-binding domain (LBD) owing to the loss of van der Waals interactions made by the Phe360 residue in the wild type and an important salt bridge made by Arg357, with consequent rearrangement of loop 11/12 and the activation function helix 12 (H12). The increased mobility of H12 makes the binding of co-activators in the hydrophobic cleft less efficient, thereby markedly lowering the transactivation activity. The spectroscopic analysis in solution and molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations provided results which were in agreement and consistent with the mutant conformational changes observed by X-ray analysis. Moreover, to evaluate the importance of the salt bridge made by Arg357, the crystal structure of the PPARγ R357A mutant in complex with the agonist rosiglitazone has been solved.

The binding of silibinin to ERp57.

The flavonoid silibinin is known to intervene in many cellular processes involved in a variety of pathologies, thus appearing a promising therapeutic tool. The molecular mechanisms responsible for these activities, however, have not been clearly defined, and although some of its interactions with proteins have been identified, the relative affinities are often too low to appear relevant in vivo. Here we describe the interaction of silibinin with the protein disulfide isomerase ERp57, characterized by a submicromolar dissociation constant. This interaction enhances the formation of a ERp57/REF-1 complex, and furthermore appears to affect the intracellular distribution of ERp57. This protein is involved in signaling pathways which are also affected by silibinin. This suggests that the ERp57-silibinin interaction might explain at least some of the biological effects caused by the flavonoid.

The phytotoxin fusicoccin differently regulates 14-3-3 proteins association to mode III targets.

Modulation of the interaction of regulatory 14-3-3 proteins to their physiological partners through small cell-permeant molecules is a promising strategy to control cellular processes where 14-3-3s are engaged. Here, we show that the fungal phytotoxin fusicoccin (FC), known to stabilize 14-3-3 association to the plant plasma membrane H(+) -ATPase, is able to stabilize 14-3-3 interaction to several client proteins with a mode III binding motif. Isothermal titration calorimetry analysis of the interaction between 14-3-3s and different peptides reproducing a mode III binding site demonstrated the FC ability to stimulate 14-3-3 the association. Moreover, molecular docking studies provided the structural rationale for the differential FC effect, which exclusively depends on the biochemical properties of the residue in peptide C-terminal position. Our study proposes FC as a promising tool to control cellular processes regulated by 14-3-3 proteins, opening new perspectives on its potential pharmacological applications.

Intersubunit ionic interactions stabilize the nucleoside diphosphate kinase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Most nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDPKs) are hexamers. The C-terminal tail interacting with the neighboring subunits is crucial for hexamer stability. In the NDPK from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mt) this tail is missing. The quaternary structure of Mt-NDPK is essential for full enzymatic activity and for protein stability to thermal and chemical denaturation. We identified the intersubunit salt bridge Arg(80)-Asp(93) as essential for hexamer stability, compensating for the decreased intersubunit contact area. Breaking the salt bridge by the mutation D93N dramatically decreased protein thermal stability. The mutation also decreased stability to denaturation by urea and guanidinium. The D93N mutant was still hexameric and retained full activity. When exposed to low concentrations of urea it dissociated into folded monomers followed by unfolding while dissociation and unfolding of the wild type simultaneously occur at higher urea concentrations. The dissociation step was not observed in guanidine hydrochloride, suggesting that low concentration of salt may stabilize the hexamer. Indeed, guanidinium and many other salts stabilized the hexamer with a half maximum effect of about 0.1 M, increasing protein thermostability. The crystal structure of the D93N mutant has been solved.

Cupricyclins, novel redox-active metallopeptides based on conotoxins scaffold.

Highly stable natural scaffolds which tolerate multiple amino acid substitutions represent the ideal starting point for the application of rational redesign strategies to develop new catalysts of potential biomedical and biotechnological interest. The knottins family of disulphide-constrained peptides display the desired characteristics, being highly stable and characterized by hypervariability of the inter-cysteine loops. The potential of knottins as scaffolds for the design of novel copper-based biocatalysts has been tested by engineering a metal binding site on two different variants of an ω-conotoxin, a neurotoxic peptide belonging to the knottins family. The binding site has been designed by computational modelling and the redesigned peptides have been synthesized and characterized by optical, fluorescence, electron spin resonance and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The novel peptides, named Cupricyclin-1 and -2, bind one Cu(2+) ion per molecule with nanomolar affinity. Cupricyclins display redox activity and catalyze the dismutation of superoxide anions with an activity comparable to that of non-peptidic superoxide dismutase mimics. We thus propose knottins as a novel scaffold for the design of catalytically-active mini metalloproteins.

pH-, temperature- and ion-dependent oligomerization of Sulfolobus solfataricus recombinant amidase: a study with site-specific mutants.

Recombinant amidase from Sulfolobus solfataricus occurred as a dimer of 110 kDa comprising identical subunits. Only dimers were present at pHs above 7.0, but with decreasing pH, dimers associated into octamers, with complete oligomerization occurring at pH 3.0. Oligomerization showed reversible temperature-dependence, with octamer formation increasing with temperature from 36 degrees C to between 70 and 80 degrees C. Increasing salt concentrations, favored dissociation of the octamers. Among the three investigated factors affecting the dimer-octamer equilibrium, the most important was pH. Among four mutants obtained by site-specific mutagenesis and selection for pH and temperature sensitivity, the T319I and D487N mutant amidases, like that of the native Sulfolobus solfataricus, responded to changes in pH and temperature with a conformational change affecting the dimer-octamer equilibrium. The Y41C and L34P mutant amidases were unaffected by pH and temperature, remaining always in the dimeric state. The differences among mutants in protein conformation must be related to the position of the introduced mutation. Although the L34P and Y41C mutations are located in the helical region 33-48 (LLKLQLESYERLDSLP), which is close to the amino-terminal segment of the protein, the T319I mutation is located in a strand on the surface of the protein, which is far from, and opposite to, the amino-terminal segment. The D487N mutation is located in the center of the protein, far distant from the 33-48 segment. These observations suggest that the segment of the protein closest to the amino-terminus plays a key role in the association of dimers into octamers.

Thermal stability and redox properties of M. tuberculosis CuSOD.

The superoxide dismutase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the only Cu-containing superoxide dismutase that lacks zinc in the active site. To explore the structural properties of this unusual enzyme, we have investigated its stability by differential scanning calorimetry. We have found that the holo-enzyme is significantly more stable than the apo-protein or the partially metallated enzyme, but that its melting temperature is markedly lower than that of all the other characterized eukaryotic and prokaryotic Cu,Zn superoxide dismutases. We have also observed that, unlike the zinc-free eukaryotic or bacterial enzymes, the active site copper of the mycobacterial enzyme is not reduced by ascorbate, confirming that its redox properties are comparable to those typical of the enzymes containing zinc in the active site. Our findings highlight the role of zinc in conferring stability to Cu,Zn superoxide dismutases and indicate that the structural rearrangements observed in M. tuberculosis Cu,SOD compensate for the absence of zinc in achieving a fully active enzyme.

IFI16 and NM23 bind to a common DNA fragment both in the P53 and the cMYC gene promoters.

In the melanoma M14 cell line, we found that the antimetastatic protein NM23/nucleoside diphosphate kinase binds to the promoters of the oncogene cMYC and of P53, a gene often mutated in human cancer (Cervoni et al. [2006] J. Cell. Biochem. 98:421-428). In a further study, we find now that IFI16, a transcriptional repressor, in both promoters binds to the G-rich fragment that also binds NM23/NDPK. These fragments possess non-B DNA structures. Moreover, by sequential chromatin immunoprecipitation (re-ChIP) we show that the two proteins (IFI16 and NM23/NDPK) are simultaneously bound in vivo to the same DNA fragments. Since P53 stimulates apoptosis and inhibits cellular growth, and cMYC promotes cell growth and, in several instances, also apoptosis, the presence of NM23 and IFI16 on the same DNA fragments suggests their common involvement in the reduced development of some tumors.

Regulatory and structural properties differentiating the chromosomal and the bacteriophage-associated Escherichia coli O157:H7 Cu, Zn superoxide dismutases.

BACKGROUND: Highly virulent enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 strains possess three sodC genes encoding for periplasmic Cu, Zn superoxide dismutases: sodC, which is identical to the gene present in non-pathogenic E. coli strains, and sodC-F1 and sodC-F2, two nearly identical genes located within lambdoid prophage sequences. The significance of this apparent sodC redundancy in E. coli O157:H7 has not yet been investigated. RESULTS: We report that strains deleted of one or more sodC genes are less resistant than the wild type strain to a challenge with hydrogen peroxide, thus confirming their involvement in the bacterial antioxidant apparatus. To understand if the different sodC genes have truly overlapping functions, we have carried out a comparison of the functional, structural and regulatory properties of the various E. coli O157:H7 SodC enzymes. We have found that the chromosomal and prophagic sodC genes are differentially regulated in vitro. sodC is exclusively expressed in aerobic cultures grown to the stationary phase. In contrast, sodC-F1 and sodC-F2 are expressed also in the logarithmic phase and in anaerobic cultures. Moreover, the abundance of SodC-F1/SodC-F2 increases with respect to that of SodC in bacteria recovered from infected Caco-2 cells, suggesting higher expression/stability of SodC-F1/SodC-F2 in intracellular environments. This observation correlates with the properties of the proteins. In fact, monomeric SodC and dimeric SodC-F1/SodC-F2 are characterized by sharp differences in catalytic activity, metal affinity, protease resistance and stability. CONCLUSION: Our data show that the chromosomal and bacteriophage-associated E. coli O157:H7 sodC genes have different regulatory properties and encode for proteins with distinct structural/functional features, suggesting that they likely play distinctive roles in bacterial protection from reactive oxygen species. In particular, dimeric SodC-F1 and SodC-F2 possess physico-chemical properties which make these enzymes more suitable than SodC to resist the harsh environmental conditions which are encountered by bacteria within the infected host.