Prevalence of Flavivirus and A lphavirus in bats captured in the state of Yucatan, southeastern Mexico.

Flavivirus (family Flaviviridae) and Alphavirus (family Togaviridae) are mosquito-borne viruses that poses a significant risk to public health worldwide. Examples of these viruses include Dengue virus (DENV) and Zika virus (ZIKV) in the Flavivirus genus, and Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the Alphavirus genus. The potential contribution of bats in the mosquito-to-human transmission cycle of these viral genera in the tropics has not been studied. Here, a total of 144 bats belonging to three families (Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae) and six species were captured for one year using mist nets in sites with different landscapes (forest and grassland) in the state of Yucatan, southeastern Mexico. Blood samples and rectal and oral swabs were collected to detect Flavivirus and Alphavirus RNA genomes through RT-PCR. Flavivirus RNA was detected in 53 individuals (36.8%; 95% CI: 29.4%-44.9%), and Alphavirus RNA was detected in 59 individuals (40.1%; 95% CI: 33.2%-49.2%). The sequences obtained were consistent with ZIKV and DENV, into the Flavivirus, and CHIKV into the Alphavirus positive samples. The prevalence of both Flavivirus and Alphavirus was higher during the dry season compared with the rainy season. This high positivity rate, highlighted in both Flavivirus and Alphavirus, suggests a potential contribution of bats in the circulation of these viral genera in sylvatic environments. Seasonal variation in viral genera prevalence, with higher prevalence during dry seasons than rainy seasons, may suggest specific viral activity patterns in response to climatic conditions.

Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana Infection in Wild Rodents from an Emergent Focus of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Yucatan, Mexico.

In 2015, emergent cases of localized cutaneous leishmaniasis (LCL) were reported in Tinum, Yucatan, Mexico. As part of an eco-epidemiological study to characterize the elements that trigger Leishmania infection in that area, we conducted a field study to investigate the occurrence of Leishmania infection in wild rodents. From November 2019 to February 2020, rodents were caught from three sites located in the municipality of Tinum, Yucatan. For each specimen, clinical signs suggestive of Leishmania infection were recorded. Samples from the tail, liver, and spleen were taken for the identification of Leishmania DNA by PCR. Twenty rodents belonging to two species were caught including Heteromys gaumeri (55%, 11/20) and Ototylomys phyllotis (45%, 9/20). Fifty-five percent of the animals presented white spots on the tail, 15% had splenomegaly, and 5% had hepatomegaly. Fifty-five percent (11/20) of the animals were found infected by Leishmania. Heteromys gaumeri was caught in all trapping sites and was the most infected species (63.6%, 7/11). The percentage of infection for O. phyllotis was 44.4% (4/9). Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana was identified as the infecting species in two H. gaumeri. This study provides, for the first time, evidence of Leishmania infection in wild rodents from the Yucatan state. Heteromys gaumeri and O. phyllotis may be involved in the transmission cycle of L. mexicana in this emergent focus; however, further longitudinal studies are needed to confirm their role as primary reservoirs.

High Prevalence of Avian Influenza Virus Among Wild Waterbirds and Land Birds of Mexico.

Aquatic wild birds, especially waterfowl, have been long considered the main reservoirs of the avian influenza A virus; however, recent surveys have found an important prevalence of these viruses among land birds as well. Migration has been suggested as an important factor in the avian influenza virus dissemination. We aimed to estimate the prevalence of influenza A viruses in wild birds (waterbirds and land birds; resident and migratory) in eastern Mexico, where the three main North American migration flyways converge and where there was no previous information on this subject. We detected influenza with reverse transcription coupled with a PCR approach. Of the 534 birds sampled between 2010 and 2012, we detected the influenza A virus in a high proportion of birds (39%). Prevalence was particularly high in land birds (49%) when compared to aquatic birds (26%); there was no difference in overall prevalence between resident (39%) and migratory birds (39%). The high prevalence of the avian influenza virus in land birds was noteworthy in the innermost sampling areas in northern Mexico (Coahuila [82%] and Nuevo Leon [43%]).

Alta prevalencia del virus de la influenza aviar entre aves acuáticas silvestres y aves terrestres de México. Las aves silvestres acuáticas, especialmente las aves anseriformes, han sido consideradas durante mucho tiempo los principales reservorios del virus de la influenza aviar A; sin embargo, muestreos recientes también han encontrado una importante prevalencia de estos virus entre las aves terrestres. Se ha sugerido que la migración es un factor importante en la diseminación del virus de la influenza aviar. El objetivo de este estudio fue estimar la prevalencia de los virus de la influenza A en aves silvestres (aves acuáticas y terrestres; residentes y migratorias) en el este de México, donde convergen las tres rutas migratorias principales de América del Norte y donde no había información previa sobre este tema. Se detectó al virus de influenza mediante transcripción reversa acoplada a PCR. De las 534 aves muestreadas entre los años 2010 y 2012, se detectó al virus de la influenza A en una alta proporción de aves (39%). La prevalencia fue particularmente alta en las aves terrestres (49%) en comparación con las aves acuáticas (26%); no se observó diferencia en la prevalencia general entre las aves residentes (39%) y las migratorias (39%). La alta prevalencia del virus de la influenza aviar en las aves terrestres fue notable en las áreas de muestreo hacia el interior del norte de México (Coahuila [82%] y Nuevo León [43%]).

Genomic footprints of adaptation in a cooperatively breeding tropical bird across a vegetation gradient.

Identifying the genetic basis of phenotypic variation and its relationship with the environment is key to understanding how local adaptations evolve. Such patterns are especially interesting among populations distributed across habitat gradients, where genetic structure can be driven by isolation by distance (IBD) and/or isolation by environment (IBE). Here, we used variation in ~1,600 high-quality SNPs derived from paired-end sequencing of double-digest restriction site-associated DNA (ddRAD-Seq) to test hypotheses related to IBD and IBE in the Yucatan jay (Cyanocorax yucatanicus), a tropical bird endemic to the Yucatán Peninsula. This peninsula is characterized by a precipitation and vegetation gradient-from dry to evergreen tropical forests-that is associated with morphological variation in this species. We found a moderate level of nucleotide diversity (π = .008) and little evidence for genetic differentiation among vegetation types. Analyses of neutral and putatively adaptive SNPs (identified by complementary genome-scan approaches) indicate that IBD is the most reliable explanation to account for frequency distribution of the former, while IBE has to be invoked to explain those of the later. These results suggest that selective factors acting along a vegetation gradient can promote local adaptation in the presence of gene flow in a vagile, nonmigratory and geographically restricted species. The putative candidate SNPs identified here are located within or linked to a variety of genes that represent ideal targets for future genomic surveys.

Molecular evidence of Rickettsia typhi infection in dogs from a rural community in Yucatán, México.

INTRODUCTION: Rickettsia typhi causes murine or endemic typhus, which is transmitted to humans primarily through flea bites contaminated with feces. Synanthropic and domestic animals also contribute to the infection cycle of R. typhi. Cases of murine typhus in humans were reported in the rural community of Bolmay, Yucatán, México, between 2007 and 2010.  OBJECTIVE: To identify the presence of R. typhi and estimate the frequency of infection in dogs from Bolmay, México, a locality with previous reports of murine typhus in humans.  MATERIALS AND METHODS: Whole blood samples were taken from 128 dogs. Total DNA was extracted for use in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify fragments of the 17 kDa and omp B genes and confirms the presence of Rickettsia spp. The reaction products were sequenced, and alignment analysis was performed using the BLAST tool.  RESULTS: The frequency of R. typhi infection in dogs was 5.5 % (7/128). The alignment identified 99% and 100% homology to the R. typhi 17 kDa and omp B genes, respectively.  CONCLUSION: We confirmed the presence of R. typhi in dogs in the studied community but at a low frequency. However, there is potential risk of transmission to humans.

[Effectiveness of commercial repellents against Aedes aegypti (L.) in Yucatan, México]. / Efectividad de repelentes comerciales disponibles contra el mosquito Aedes aegypti (L.) en Yucatán, México.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed the efficacy of commercial repellents available in Yucatan against Aedes aegypti, vector of dengue, Chikungunya and Zika. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Protection time was determined based on WHO/CTD/ WHOPES/IC y la NOM-032-SSA2-20I4. RESULTS: Products with DEET (N, N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide) at 25% met the recommended protection. Efficacy was directly proportional to the concentration of DEET; botanicals repellents resulted no protective. CONCLUSIONS: Repellents with DEET provided more protection against Ae. aegypti and botanical repellents, including impregnated wristbands, provided no protection.

Efectividad de repelentes comerciales disponibles contra el mosquito Aedes aegypti (L ) en Yucatán, México / Effectiveness of commercial repellents against Aedes aegypti (L ) in Yucatan, México

Resumen: Objetivo: Determinar la eficacia de repelentes comerciales disponibles en Yucatán contra el mosquito Aedes aegypti, vector del dengue, Chikungunya y Zika. Material y métodos: Se determinó el tiempo de protección con base en el protocolo WHO/CTD/WHOPES/IC y la NOM-032-SSA2-2014. Resultados: Sólo el repelente con DEET (N, N-dietil-3-metilbenzamida) al 25% cumplió con la protección recomendada. La eficacia fue directamente proporcional a la concentración del DEET; aquéllos con componentes botánicos fueron poco o nada protectores. Conclusiones: Los resultados muestran que los repelentes con DEET proveen protección contra Ae. Aegypti; los repelentes botánicos, incluyendo las pulseras impregnadas, ofrecen nula protección.

Abstract: Objective: We assessed the efficacy of commercial repellents available in Yucatan against Aedes aegypti, vector of dengue, Chikungunya and Zika. Materials and methods: Protection time was determined based on WHO/CTD/ WHOPES/IC y la NOM-032-SSA2-20I4. Results: Products with DEET (N, N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide) at 25% met the recommended protection. Efficacy was directly proportional to the concentration of DEET; botanicals repellents resulted no protective. Conclusions: Repellents with DEET provided more protection against Ae. aegypti and botanical repellents, including impregnated wristbands, provided no protection.

Detección molecular de Rickettsia typhi en perros de una comunidad rural de Yucatán, México / Molecular evidence of Rickettsia typhi infection in dogs from a rural community in Yucatán, México

Introducción. Rickettsia typhi es la bacteria causante del tifus múrido o endémico, el cual es transmitido al ser humano principalmente por medio de las heces infectadas de pulgas y en cuyo ciclo de infección se encuentran involucrados distintos animales sinantrópicos y domésticos. En la comunidad rural de Bolmay, Yucatán, México, se reportaron casos de tifus múrido en seres humanos durante el periodo 2007-2010. Objetivo. Identificar la presencia de R . typhi y estimar la frecuencia de infección en perros de Bolmay, México. Materiales y métodos. Se tomaron muestras de sangre completa de 128 perros, se les extrajo el ADN total y se analizaron mediante reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) para amplificar los fragmentos del gen de 17 kDa y omp B , y confirmar la presencia de Rickettsia spp. Los productos de las reacciones se enviaron a secuenciación y se les hizo un análisis de alineamiento con Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST). Resultados. Se encontró una frecuencia de infección de 5,5 % (7/128). El alineamiento demostró 99 % de homologación para el gen de 17 kDa y 100 % para el gen omp B en R . typhi . Conclusión. Se detectó la presencia de R . typhi pero una baja frecuencia de infección en perros de la comunidad de estudio; sin embargo, la especie podría representar un riesgo de transmisión para los seres humanos.

Introduction: Rickettsia typhi causes murine or endemic typhus, which is transmitted to humans primarily through flea bites contaminated with feces. Synanthropic and domestic animals also contribute to the infection cycle of R. typhi . Cases of murine typhus in humans were reported in the rural community of Bolmay, Yucatán, México, between 2007 and 2010. Objective: To identify the presence of R . typhi and estimate the frequency of infection in dogs from Bolmay, México, a locality with previous reports of murine typhus in humans. Materials and methods: Whole blood samples were taken from 128 dogs. Total DNA was extracted for use in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify fragments of the 17 kDa and omp B genes and confirms the presence of Rickettsia spp. The reaction products were sequenced, and alignment analysis was performed using the BLAST tool. Results: The frequency of R. typhi infection in dogs was 5.5 % (7/128). The alignment identified 99% and 100% homology to the R . typhi 17 kDa and omp B genes, respectively. Conclusion: We confirmed the presence of R . typhi in dogs in the studied community but at a low frequency. However, there is potential risk of transmission to humans.

CHICKEN COOPS, Triatoma dimidiata INFESTATION AND ITS INFECTION WITH Trypanosoma cruzi IN A RURAL VILLAGE OF YUCATAN, MEXICO.

This study longitudinally investigated the association between Triatoma dimidiata infestation, triatomine infection with Trypanosoma cruzi and household/backyard environmental characteristics in 101 homesteads in Molas and Yucatan, Mexico, between November 2009 (rainy season) and May 2010 (dry season). Logistic regression models tested the associations between insect infestation/infection and potential household-level risk factors. A total of 200 T. dimidiata were collected from 35.6% of the homesteads, mostly (73%) from the peridomicile. Of all the insects collected, 48% were infected with T. cruzi. Infected insects were collected in 31.6% of the homesteads (54.1% and 45.9% intra- and peridomiciliary, respectively). Approximately 30% of all triatomines collected were found in chicken coops. The presence of a chicken coop in the backyard of a homestead was significantly associated with both the odds of finding T. dimidiata (OR = 4.10, CI 95% = 1.61-10.43, p = 0.003) and the presence of triatomines infected with T. cruzi (OR = 3.37, CI 95% = 1.36-8.33, p = 0.006). The results of this study emphasize the relevance of chicken coops as a putative source of T. dimidiata populations and a potential risk for T. cruzi transmission.

Use and acceptance of long lasting insecticidal net screens for dengue prevention in Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Dengue, recognized by the WHO as the most important mosquito-borne viral disease in the world, is a growing problem. Currently, the only effective way of preventing dengue is vector control. Standard methods have shown limited effect, and there have been calls to develop new integrated vector management approaches. One novel tool, protecting houses with long lasting insecticidal screens on doors and windows, is being trialled in a cluster randomised controlled trial by a joint UADY/WHO TDR/IDRC study in various districts of Acapulco, Mexico, with exceptionally high levels of crime and insecurity.This study investigated the community's perspectives of long lasting insecticidal screens on doors and windows in homes and in schools, in order to ascertain their acceptability, to identify challenges to further implementation and opportunities for future improvements. METHODS: This was a sequential mixed-methods study. The quantitative arm contained a satisfaction survey administered to 288 houses that had received the intervention examining their perspectives of both the intervention and dengue prevention in general. The qualitative arm consisted of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with those who had accepted the intervention and key informant interviews with: schoolteachers to discuss the use of the screens in schools, program staff, and community members who had refused the intervention. RESULTS: Overall satisfaction and acceptance of the screens was very high, with only some operational and technical complaints relating to screen fragility and the installation process. However, the wider social context of urban violence and insecurity was a major barrier to screen acceptance. Lack of information dissemination and community collaboration were identified as project weaknesses. CONCLUSIONS: The screens are widely accepted by the population, but the project implementation could be improved by reassuring the community of its legitimacy in the context of insecurity. More community engagement and better information sharing structures are needed.The screens could be a major new dengue prevention tool suitable for widespread use, if further research supports their entomological and epidemiological effectiveness and their acceptability in different social and environmental contexts. Further research is needed looking at the impact of insecurity of dengue prevention programmes.

An assessment of the importance of subsurface catch basins for Aedes aegypti adult production during the dry season in a neighborhood of Merida, Mexico.

We compared the number of adult Aedes aegypti emerging from subsurface catch basins located in the streets against the number of pupae (as a proxy of adults emerging) from the entire container larval habitats found at residential premises within 1 ha of a neighborhood in the Mexican city of Merida during 8 days in the dry season of 2012. Aedes aegypti adults were collected from 60% of the subsurface catch basins. They produced 12 adults/day/ha (95% confidence interval [CI], 6.4 to 17.9), 5 females (95% CI, 2.1 to 7.7), and 7 males (95% CI, 3.8 to 10.7). In contrast, only 7 containers holding water were identified in 30 premises inspected, 1 bucket was positive for Ae. aegypti larvae, but no pupae-positive containers were found. No other mosquito species were found. This study revealed the importance of this type of nonresidential and subterranean aquatic habitat for Ae. aegypti adult production in this neighborhood of Merida during the dry season.