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In this work, photon-enhanced thermionic emission (PETE), which simultaneously harvests solar photonic and thermionic energies, is studied theoretically and experimentally with a transmission-mode AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs cathode within a compact photodiode. The effect of temperature on energy distribution and photoemission yield was experimentally studied in the wavelength range 450-850 nm. The variation of the energy distribution with increasing temperatures demonstrates that direct photoemission gradually declines, while PETE contribution increases with increased heat. Further quantitative proof of the PETE phenomenon can be observed at 850 nm, as temperature increases from 20°C to 90°C. The PETE model with the t-mode AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs cathode is deduced, and the temperature dependence of electron affinity can be achieved. The results show promising applications of the AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs cathode in combined solar/thermal energy conversion.
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Three InGaAs photocathode samples with different emission layers were prepared using metal organic chemical vapor deposition and activated by Cs, O. The spectral responsivity curves of the three samples were obtained, and the quantum efficiency formula of the InGaAs photocathodes with multi-sublayers was derived. Results show that the InGaAs samples with thick emission layers have higher spectral responsivity, and the wavelength of the threshold decreases with the decrease of the In component. According to the performance parameters obtained by fitting the quantum efficiency of the experiment, it was found that a higher In component corresponds to a lower electron escape probability. Therefore, it is difficult to prepare InGaAs photocathodes with a high electron escape probability and a long threshold wavelength at the same time. By adding mini transition layers between the sublayers, the interface recombination velocity decreases, and the critical thickness of the sublayers increases. In conclusion, mini transition layers are very important for the preparation of InGaAs photocathodes capable of high performance.
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Negative electron affinity GaAs wire-array photocathodes have been fabricated by reactive ion etching and inductively coupled plasma etching of bulk GaAs material followed by Cs-O activation. Scanning electron microscope has revealed that the thus obtained high-density GaAs wire arrays had high periodicity, large height, and good morphology. Photoluminescence spectra indicated the wire arrays were of good crystalline quality and free from any obvious damage. Compared to the original GaAs wafer, the photoluminescence peak positions of the wire arrays were somewhat red-shifted, which may be attributed to the temperature effect and strain relaxation. The wire-array structures showed significantly reduced light reflection compared with the original wafer due to the excellent light-trapping effect. Cs-O activation experiments of the GaAs wire arrays have been performed to reveal the effect of incident angle on quantum efficiency. The results show that maximum quantum efficiency was obtained at about 30°. Given these unique electrical and optical properties, a GaAs wire-array photocathode is an attractive alternative to its planar-structured counterpart.
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In order to understand the photoemission mechanism of the reflection-mode InGaAs photocathode with a thin emission layer, the formula describing reflection-mode quantum efficiency is revised by solving the one-dimensional continuity equation, in which the electrons generated in the GaAs buffer layer are considered. Compared with the conventional formula, the revised formula is proved to be more suitable for the reflection-mode InGaAs photocathode with a thin emission layer. In experiment, the InGaAs sample goes through two-step surface preparation including a wet chemical cleaning process and a heat treatment process. Then the sample is activated by Cs/O and the experimental quantum efficiency curves are measured simultaneously every other hour. The measured results show that the shapes of the quantum efficiency curves degrade with time because of the contamination of residual gases in the vacuum system. All the quantum efficiency curves are well fitted by the revised formula.
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The effects of AlGaAs/GaAs layer thickness and Al composition range on the spectral response and integral sensitivities of reflection-mode graded band-gap AlGaAs/GaAs photocathodes have been investigated and simulated. The experimental results demonstrate that the spectral response over the wavelength region of interest for graded band-gap photocathodes is greater than that for uniform band-gap cathodes, and the increase in long-wavelength response is more pronounced. These results can be attributed to the built-in electric field in the graded band-gap AlGaAs layer. We established a spectral response model of graded band-gap photocathodes based on the numerical solution of coupled Poisson and continuity equations. According to the model, we calculated the theoretical spectral response and sensitivities of graded band-gap cathodes, and found the optimum Al(x)Ga(1-x)As layer thicknesses are 6, 10, 16, and 22 µm for the reflection-mode cathodes with linearly graded Al composition x ranges of 0 to 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, respectively.
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A heterostructured Al(x)Ga(1-x)As/GaAs photocathode consisting of a composition-graded buffer layer and an exponential-doped emission layer is developed to improve the photoemission performance over the wavelength region of interest. The theoretical quantum efficiency models for reflection-mode and transmission-mode Al(x)Ga(1-x)As/GaAs photocathodes are deduced based on one-dimensional continuity equations, respectively. By comparison of simulated results with conventional quantum efficiency models, it is found that the multilevel built-in electric field can effectively improve the quantum efficiency, which is related to the buffer layer parameters and cathode thicknesses. This special graded bandgap structure arising from the compositional grade in the buffer layer and doping grade in the emission layer would bring about the reduction of back interface recombination losses and the efficient collection of photons generating photoelectrons. Moreover, a best fit of the experimental quantum efficiency data can be achieved with the aid of the deduced models, which would provide an effective approach to evaluate internal parameters for the special graded bandgap photoemitters.
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In order to research a high-efficiency AlGaN photocathode, the AlGaN photocathodes with varied Al composition (0.68 and 0.4) and uniform Al composition (0.24) were grown. The photocathodes were activated by Cs adsorption and received their spectral response via multi-information system. Results show that the absorption rate of the AlGaN photocathode with varied Al composition is half of the AlGaN photocathode with uniform Al composition, but the quantum efficiency of the photocathode with varied Al composition is approximately 29% higher than that of the photocathode with uniform Al composition. The built-in field within the emission layer of the AlGaN photocathode with varied Al composition is much higher than that of the photocathode with uniform Al composition, which is the main factor that promotes the photoelectron movement toward the photocathode surface and improves photoemission performance of the AlGaN photocathode.
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The resolution model of a graded doping and graded composition transmission-mode AlGaAs/GaAs photocathode is solved numerically from the two-dimensional continuity equations. According to the model, we calculate the theoretical modulation transfer function (MTF) of different graded doping and graded composition structures. The simulation results show that both graded composition and graded doping structures can increase the resolution of the photocathode. The exponentially doping and linear composition photocathode has the maximum resolution among the possible graded doping and graded composition photocathodes. The resolution improvement is attributed to the built-in electric field induced by a graded composition or graded doping structure. The simulation results also show that the MTFs of AlGaAs/GaAs cathodes increase as the AlGaAs layer thickness decreases, or the incident light wavelength increases.
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Photocathode surface treatment aims to obtain high sensitivity, where the key point is to acquire an atomically clean surface. Various surface cleaning methods for removing contamination from InGaAs photocathode surfaces were investigated. The atomic compositions of InGaAs photocathode structures and surfaces were measured by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Ar ion sputtering. After surface cleaning, the InGaAs surface is arsenoxide-free, however, a small amount of Ga2O3 and In2O3 still can be found. The 1:1 mixed solution of hydrochloric acid to deionized water followed by thermal annealing at 525°C has been demonstrated to be the best choice in dealing with the surface oxides. After the Cs/O activation, a surface model was proposed where the oxides on the surface will lead to a positive electron affinity, adversely affecting low-energy electrons escaping to the vacuum, which is reflected by the photocurrent curves and the spectral response curves.
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The effect of Cs adsorption on the photoemission performance of a reflection-mode GaAlAs photocathode in an ultrahigh vacuum chamber has been investigated. The experiments for Cs/O activation, multiple recaesiation, and degradation are performed on a GaAlAs photocathode. Meanwhile, the Cs/O activated and recaesiated photocurrent curves, degraded photocurrent curves, and spectral response curves are measured and analyzed. Besides, the performance parameters of the photocathodes are obtained by using the formula to fit with the experimental quantum efficiency curves. The results show that the Cs atoms not only make the atomically clean surface form the negative electron affinity, but also make the degraded photocathode recover to a good level. The quantum efficiency and the lifetime of GaAlAs photocathode become lower with increasing the recaesiation times.
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Using the modulation transfer function obtained by establishing and solving the two-dimensional continuity equation, we have calculated and comparatively analyzed the resolution characteristics of transmission-mode exponential-doping and uniform-doping Ga0.37Al0.63As photocathodes. The calculations show that compared with a uniform-doping Ga0.37Al0.63As photocathode, the exponential-doping structure can significantly improve not only the resolution, but also the quantum efficiency of the photocathode. This improvement is different from the approach for high resolution by reducing the emission layer thickness Te and electron diffusion length LD, or by increasing the recombination velocity of the back-interface, SV, which results in low quantum efficiency. Furthermore, the improvement in resolution and quantum efficiency for the transmission-mode exponential-doping Ga0.37Al0.63As photocathodes is the result of the effect of the built-in electric field on electron transport and lateral diffusion.
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To research the photoemission performance of a transmission-mode Al(1-x)Ga(x)N photocathode, Al0.24Ga0.76N and GaN photocathodes with the same structure were activated, their spectral responses were measured using a multi-information measurement system at room temperature, and the photocathode parameters were obtained by fitting quantum efficiency curves. The results showed that both the reflective-mode and transmission-mode spectral responses of the AlGaN photocathode were lower than those of the GaN photocathode. Compared with the GaN photocathode, the short-wavelength spectral response of the Al0.24Ga0.76N photocathode was less seriously affected by lattice defects between the buffer and emission layers. The Al atom at the AlGaN photocathode surface could affect the optimal Cs adsorption position, which mainly affects the surface electron escape probability of the photocathode.
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According to the expression for modulation transfer function obtained by solving the established 2D continuity equation, the resolution characteristics for reflection-mode exponential-doping and uniform-doping GaN photocathodes have been calculated and comparatively analyzed. These calculated results show that the exponential-doping structure can upgrade not only the resolution capability but also the quantum efficiency for a GaN photocathode. The improvement mechanism is different from the approach for high resolution applied by reducing Te and L(D) or increasing S(V), which leads to low quantum efficiency. The main contribution factor of this improvement is that the mechanism that transports electrons toward the NEA surface is facilitated by the built-in electric field formed by this exponential-doping structure, and the corresponding lateral diffusion is reduced.
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The stability of negative electron affinity Ga0.37Al0.63As photocathodes in an ultrahigh vacuum system has been investigated. The degraded photocurrents of the Cs/O activated Ga0.37Al0.63As photocathodes under illumination with different intensity are recorded in real time, and the quantum efficiencies are measured after the degradation. The degraded quantum efficiencies of the photocathode under no illumination are measured at regular intervals. Multiple activations are performed on the Ga0.37Al0.63As photocathode, after that the quantum efficiencies and the degraded photocurrents are measured. The results indicate that the lifetime of the Ga0.37Al0.63As photocathode increases as the intensity of illumination decreases, and is longer than that of the GaAs photocathode in the case of no illumination. Besides, the Ga0.37Al0.63As photocathode performed after the second activation would obtain optimal stability.
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To research the attenuation performance of the AlGaN photocathode, three samples with the same structures grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition were activated with three different activation methods, which are called Cs-only, Cs-O, and Cs-O-Cs activation, respectively. The spectral responses and attenuated photocurrents of the three AlGaN photocathodes were measured. The results show that the Cs-O activated AlGaN photocathode exhibits the lowest attenuation speed in the first few hours, and the attenuation speed of the Cs-only activated one is fastest. After attenuating for 90 min, the attenuation photocurrent curve of the Cs-O-Cs activated sample is coincident with that of the Cs-O activated one. The main factor affecting the photocurrent attenuation is related to Cs atoms desorbed from the photocathode surface.
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In order to explore the relation between the modulation transfer function (MTF) and the halo effect for low-light-level (LLL) image intensifiers, the MTF for the preproximity focusing electron-optical system is calculated according to the electron distribution on the microchannel plate input face. During the calculation, the halo effect from secondary scattered electrons is not treated. By tracing the trajectory of photoelectrons emitted from one point on a GaAs photocathode into the preproximity focusing electron-optical system, the electron distribution is calculated, namely the point spread function. The MTF for the preproximity focusing electron-optical system is numerically calculated according to the electron distribution, which is fitted. The results show that the fitting curve of the MTF is in agreement with the analytic expressions. When the spatial frequency is less than 50 lp/mm, the relative error is below 5%. This research provides theoretical support for further development of LLL night-vision technology.
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By calculating the energy distributions of electrons reaching the photocathode surface and solving the Schrödinger equation for an electron tunneling through the surface potential barrier, we have obtained an equation to calculate the energy distributions of electrons emitted from reflection-mode Cs-covered GaAs photocathodes based on a two-minima diffusion model. According to the equation, we studied the effects of incident photon energies, diffusion lengths, and surface potential barrier on the electron energy distributions. The equation was also used to fit the measured electron energy distribution curves and the cathode performance parameters were obtained from the fitting. The Γ and L peaks in the theoretical curves are in agreement with the peaks in the experimental curves. The fitted barrier thickness 1.7 Å exactly reflects the GaAs-Cs dipole layer thickness.
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Based on the theoretical models of computing the photocathode optical performance, quantum yield and integral sensitivity, the photoemission characteristics of the domestic and ITT's transmission-mode extended blue GaAs photocathodes, namely the cathode optical properties and performance parameters, were respectively investigated. The compared results show that the integral sensitivity of the domestic transmission-mode extended blue photocathode has achieved 2,100 microA x lm(-1), still falling behind the ITT's integral sensitivity of 2,750 µA x m(-1). The reasons for the difference in quantum yield curves are that, on one hand, the thickness of GaAlAs window-layer and the Al mole fraction play a critical role in the short-wavelength response, especially in the extended blue region. On the other hand, the cathode performance parameters such as electron diffusion length and back interface recombination velocity work on the long-wavelength and short-wavelength response. All these factors are subject to the backwardness of basic industrial manufacturing level.
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Extended blue and standard transmission-mode GaAs photocathode modules were prepared, respectively, by metal organic chemical vapor deposition. The experimental reflectivity, transmissivity, and spectral response curves were measured and compared separately. The integral sensitivities are 1980 µA/lm and 2022 µA/lm for both the modules. By use of the revised quantum yield formula, the experimental spectral response curves are fitted to obtain the structure parameters. The fitted results show that the Ga(1-x)Al(x)As window layer with varied aluminum components is beneficial to improve extended blue GaAs photocathode module. In addition, the layer-thickness and aluminum component in the window layer determine the extended blue performance, while the thickness of the GaAs active layer settles the long-waveband performance for the transmission-mode GaAs photocathode module.
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High temperature annealing and Cs/O activation are external incentives, while the property of GaN material is internal factor in the preparation of negative electron affinity GaN photocathode. The similarities and differences of the performance of the two structure photocathodes are analysed based on the difference of the structure between uniform-doping and gradient-doping negative electron affinity GaN photocathodes and the changes in photocurrents in activation and the quantum yield after successfully activated of GaN photocathodes. Experiments show that: the photocurrent growth rate is slower in activation, activation time is longer and quantum efficiency is higher after successfully activated of gradient-doping GaN photocathode than those of uniform-doping photocathode respectively. The field-assisted photocathode emission model can explain the differences between the two, built-in electric field of gradient-doping structure creates additional electronic drift to the photocathode surface, and the probability of electrons to reach the photocathode surface is improved correspondingly.