Amphibian diversity across three adjacent ecosystems in Área de Conservación Guanacaste, Costa Rica.

Amphibians are the most threatened species-rich vertebrate group, with species extinctions and population declines occurring globally, even in protected and seemingly pristine habitats. These 'enigmatic declines' are generated by climate change and infectious diseases. However, the consequences of these declines are undocumented as no baseline ecological data exists for most affected areas. Like other neotropical countries, Costa Rica, including Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in north-western Costa Rica, experienced rapid amphibian population declines and apparent extinctions during the past three decades. To delineate amphibian diversity patterns within ACG, a large-scale comparison of multiple sites and habitats was conducted. Distance and time constrained visual encounter surveys characterised species richness at five sites-Murciélago (dry forest), Santa Rosa (dry forest), Maritza (mid-elevation dry-rain forest intersect), San Gerardo (rainforest) and Cacao (cloud forest). Furthermore, species-richness patterns for Cacao were compared with historic data from 1987-8, before amphibians declined in the area. Rainforests had the highest species richness, with triple the species of their dry forest counterparts. A decline of 45% (20 to 11 species) in amphibian species richness was encountered when comparing historic and contemporary data for Cacao. Conservation efforts sometimes focus on increasing the resilience of protected areas, by increasing their range of ecosystems. In this sense ACG is unique containing many tropical ecosystems compressed in a small geographic space, all protected and recognised as a UNESCO world heritage site. It thus provides an extraordinary platform to understand changes, past and present, and the resilience of tropical ecosystems and assemblages, or lack thereof, to climate change.

Ongoing declines for the world's amphibians in the face of emerging threats.

Systematic assessments of species extinction risk at regular intervals are necessary for informing conservation action1,2. Ongoing developments in taxonomy, threatening processes and research further underscore the need for reassessment3,4. Here we report the findings of the second Global Amphibian Assessment, evaluating 8,011 species for the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. We find that amphibians are the most threatened vertebrate class (40.7% of species are globally threatened). The updated Red List Index shows that the status of amphibians is deteriorating globally, particularly for salamanders and in the Neotropics. Disease and habitat loss drove 91% of status deteriorations between 1980 and 2004. Ongoing and projected climate change effects are now of increasing concern, driving 39% of status deteriorations since 2004, followed by habitat loss (37%). Although signs of species recoveries incentivize immediate conservation action, scaled-up investment is urgently needed to reverse the current trends.

Two new species of semiaquatic Anolis (Squamata: Dactyloidae) from Costa Rica.

We describe two new species of Draconura-clade semiaquatic anoles from the central Pacific versant of Costa Rica. The two new species are similar to Anolis aquaticus in external appearance and ecology but differ from this species in male dewlap coloration and scalation. Anolis robinsoni sp. nov. and A. riparius sp. nov. differ from each other mainly in male dewlap color. All three species are distinct according to diagnostic morphological traits and a phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences (669 bases of COI gene). We discuss the distribution and ecology of Anolis aquaticus and the new species.

Recent findings of Isthmohyla pictipes (Anura: Hylidae) in Costa Rica: variation and implications for conservation.

We report recent findings of Isthmohyla pictipes (Cope, 1875) in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, roughly two decades after it was last registered. We provide notes on microhabitat use, color variation, external morphology of adults and larvae, and geographic variation, and discuss some taxonomic characters employed to differentiate I. pictipes from I. tica (Starrett, 1966) and I. xanthosticta (Duellman, 1968). We also report fluorescence on the ventral surfaces of I. pictipes. Our findings are expected to shed light on the taxonomy of this species and should be useful in further population assessments and conservation plans.

A new species of dink frog, genus Diasporus (Anura: Eleutherodactylidae), from the Caribbean foothills of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica.

A new dink frog (Eleutherodactylidae: Diasporus) is described from the Tropical Wet Forest, in the northeastern foothills of Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica at an elevation of ca. 1000 m. Analysis of DNA sequences of the 16S rRNA (16S) and cytochrome oxidase 1 (COI) mitochondrial genes revealed a distinct lineage within the genus Diasporus. Additional morphological, morphometric, and acoustic analyses support the differences of this lineage, which we recognize as a new species. This new taxon is distinguished from other members of the genus Diasporus inhabiting Isthmian Central America by its unique coloration: dorsum brown to brown-grayish and venter gray-bluish with pale blotches. The new species is distinguished from other members of the genus Diasporus by very significant genetic distances (higher than 5.6 % in 16S and 16.7 % in COI). The new taxon is most closely related to D. vocator from the south pacific of Costa Rica and to an unnamed taxon from western Panama.

Shifts in the diversity of an amphibian community from a premontane forest of San Ramón, Costa Rica

Biological communities are experiencing rapid shifts of composition in Neotropical ecosystems due to several factors causing population declines. However, emerging evidence has provided insights on the adaptive potential of multiple species to respond to illnesses and environmental pressures. In Costa Rica, the decline of amphibian populations is a remarkable example of these changes. Here we provide evidence of variation in the amphibian richness of a premontane forest of San Ramón (Costa Rica) across a ~30 year period. We also quantified changes in the composition and abundance of the leaf-litter frog community occurring in the same premontane forest, by comparing diversity data with a difference of ~18 years. We evaluated the similarity of species richness from 1980s to 2010s based on several sources, and the dissimilarity of species diversity in the site comparing 28 standardized surveys from 1994-1995 and 2011-2012. We compared the relative abundance of some frogs that inhabit the leaf-litter layer between these same periods. Our results show that there is more similarity in amphibian richness between 1980s and 2010s (~ 52 %) than between 1980s and 1990s (~ 40 %). The richness of leaf-litter anurans was ~ 65 % similar between 1990s and 2010s. The diversity of leaf-litter anuran was clearly different between 1994-1995 and 2011-2012, and it was clustered among those periods. We determined that the amphibian community in this premontane forest drastically changed: many species have disappeared, or gradually declined through the decades (e.g. Pristimantis ridens, P. cruentus, Craugastor bransfordii) as in other well studied localities of Costa Rica, while some few species flourished after being almost absent from the site in the 1990s (e.g. Craugastor crassidigitus, Lithobates warszewistchii). Currently dominant species such as C. crassidigitus would be using developed resistance against Bd-fungus as an advantage (apparent competition) in the premontane forest where the disease is more virulent than in lowlands. Our analysis supports the hypothesis of individualized responses of anuran populations under distinct site and elevations. We suggest to continue monitoring the amphibian communities of premontane tropical forests to understand how this ecosystem gradually resist and adapts to this catastrophic time of biodiversity loss.

Las comunidades biológicas están experimentando rápidos cambios de composición en los ecosistemas neotropicales debido a varios factores que causan disminuciones de las poblaciones. Sin embargo, la evidencia emergente ha proporcionado información sobre el potencial de adaptación de múltiples especies para responder a enfermedades y presiones ambientales. En Costa Rica, el declive de las poblaciones de anfibios es un ejemplo notable de estos cambios. Aquí proporcionamos evidencia de variación en la riqueza de anfibios de un bosque premontano de San Ramón (Costa Rica) en un período de ~ 30 años. También cuantificamos los cambios en el ensamblaje, y las oscilaciones poblacionales, de la comunidad de ranas de hojarasca que ocurren en el mismo bosque premontano, tras comparar datos de diversidad con una diferencia de ~ 18 años. Evaluamos la similitud de la riqueza de especies desde la década de 1980 hasta la de 2010 basados en varias fuentes, así como la disimilitud de la diversidad de especies en el sitio comparando 28 muestreos estandarizados entre 1994-1995 y 2011-2012. Comparamos la abundancia relativa de algunas ranas que habitan la hojarasca entre 1994-1995 y 2011-2012. Nuestros resultados muestran que existe una similitud un poco mayor en la riqueza de anfibios entre los años 1980 y 2010 que entre los 1980 y 1990 (~ 40 %). La riqueza de los anuros de la hojarasca fue aproximadamente un 65 % similar entre la década de 1990 y 2010. La diversidad de anuros de la hojarasca fue claramente diferente entre 1994-1995 y 2011-2012, y se agrupó entre esos períodos. Determinamos que la comunidad de anfibios en este bosque premontano cambió drásticamente: muchas especies han desaparecido o han disminuido gradualmente a lo largo de las décadas como en otras localidades bien estudiadas de Costa Rica (por ejemplo, Pristimantis ridens, P. cruentus, Craugastor bransfordii), mientras algunas pocas especies florecieron tras casi desaparecer de nuestro sitio en la década de 1990 (por ejemplo, Craugastor crassidigitus, Lithobates warszewistchii). Actualmente, las especies dominantes como C. crassidigitus podrían tener resistencia contra el hongo quitridio, desarrollada como una ventaja (competición aparente) en el bosque premontano donde la enfermedad es más virulenta que en las tierras bajas. Nuestro análisis apoya la hipótesis de las respuestas individualizadas de las poblaciones de anuros en distintos sitios y elevaciones. Sugerimos continuar con el monitoreo de las comunidades de anfibios de los bosques neotropicales premontanos para comprender cómo este ecosistema resiste gradualmente y se adapta a este momento catastrófico de pérdida de biodiversidad.

Diatoms and Other Epibionts Associated with Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) Sea Turtles from the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica.

Although the sea turtles have long been familiar and even iconic to marine biologists, many aspects of their ecology remain unaddressed. The present study is the first of the epizoic diatom community covering the olive ridley turtle's (Lepidochelys olivacea) carapace and the first describing diatoms living on sea turtles in general, with the primary objective of providing detailed information on turtle epibiotic associations. Samples of turtle carapace including the associated diatom biofilm and epizoic macro-fauna were collected from Ostional beach (9° 59´ 23.7´´ N 85° 41´ 52.6´´ W), Costa Rica, during the arribada event in October 2013. A complex diatom community was present in every sample. In total, 11 macro-faunal and 21 diatom taxa were recorded. Amongst diatoms, the most numerous were erect (Achnanthes spp., Tripterion spp.) and motile (Haslea sp., Navicula spp., Nitzschia spp., Proschkinia sp.) forms, followed by adnate Amphora spp., while the most common macro-faunal species was Stomatolepas elegans (Cirripedia). Diatom densities ranged from 8179 ± 750 to 27685 ± 4885 cells mm-2. Epizoic microalgae were either partly immersed or entirely encapsulated within an exopolymeric coat. The relatively low diatom species number, stable species composition and low inter-sample dissimilarities (14.4% on average) may indicate a mutualistic relationship between the epibiont and the basibiont. Dispersal of sea turtle diatoms is probably highly restricted and similar studies will help to understand both diatom diversity, evolution and biogeography, and sea turtle ecology and foraging strategies.

Individualistic population responses of five frog species in two changing tropical environments over time.

Roughly 40% of amphibian species are in decline with habitat loss, disease, and climate change being the most cited threats. Heterogeneity of extrinsic (e.g. climate) and intrinsic (e.g. local adaptations) factors across a species' range should influence population response to climate change and other threats. Here we examine relative detectability changes for five direct-developing leaf litter frogs between 42-year sampling periods at one Lowland Tropical Forest site (51 m.a.s.l.) and one Premontane Wet Forest site (1100 m.a.s.l.) in southwest Costa Rica. We identify individualistic changes in relative detectability among populations between sampling periods at different elevations. Both common and rare species showed site-specific declines, and no species exhibited significant declines at both sites. Detection changes are correlated with changes in temperature, dry season rainfall, and leaf litter depth since 1969. Our study species share Least Concern conservation status, life history traits, and close phylogenetic relationship, yet their populations changed individualistically both within and among species. These results counter current views of the uniformity or predictability of amphibian decline response and suggest additional complexity for conservation decisions.

Diversity, natural history and conservation of amphibians and reptiles from the San Vito Region, southwestern Costa Rica

We present an inventory of the amphibians and reptiles of the San Vito de Coto Brus region, including the Las Cruces Biological Station, in southern Costa Rica, which is the result of a survey of the herpetofauna occurring in mountain forest fragments, pastures, coffee plantations, and other disturbed areas. We found 67 species, included 26 species of amphibians and of 41of reptiles. We describe the distribution patterns of the community on the basis of the life zones, elevation, fragmentation, and degree of anthropogenic impact. We also provide some nouvelle data on the systematics of some select taxa, their geographical ranges, microhabitats, activity, and other relevant ecological and natural history features. Finally, we comment on the present conservation status of the herpetofauna in the region. Previous literature and collection records indicate a higher number of species occurring in this area, which suggests that some declines have occurred, especially of amphibians, in last decades. Rev. Biol. Trop. 56 (2): 755-778. Epub 2008 June 30.

En este artículo se presenta un inventario de los anfibios y reptiles de la región de San Vito de Coto Brus incluyendo la Estación de Biología Las Cruces, en el sur de Costa Rica. Se llevó a cabo una evaluación de las poblaciones de anfibios y reptiles presentes en los parches de bosque, potreros, cafetales y otras áreas perturbadas de la región. Como resultado de esta evaluación se registraron 26 especies de anfibios y 41 de reptiles lo que suma un total de 67 especies. Asimismo se describen los patrones generales de distribución de las especies basándose en los tipos de vegetación así como en la altitud, fragmentación y grado de perturbación antrópica en el área. Se proporcionan algunos datos sobre la sistemática de las especies, su distribución geográfica, el microhábitat que ocupan, su actividad y otros datos ecológicos y biológicos relevantes. Finalmente, se presenta una breve discusión sobre la conservación de la herpetofauna en la región. Algunos registros de la literatura y de colecciones científicas muestran que el número de especies de la herpetofauna conocidos en esta región era probablemente mayor, lo que podría indicar que han ocurrido algunas declinaciones importantes de especies, especialmente de anfibios en las últimas décadas.

Diversity, natural history and conservation of amphibians and reptiles from the San Vito Region, southwestern Costa Rica.

We present an inventory of the amphibians and reptiles of the San Vito de Coto Brus region, including the Las Cruces Biological Station, in southern Costa Rica, which is the result of a survey of the herpetofauna occurring in mountain forest fragments, pastures, coffee plantations, and other disturbed areas. We found 67 species, included 26 species of amphibians and of 41 of reptiles. We describe the distribution patterns of the community on the basis of the life zones, elevation, fragmentation, and degree of anthropogenic impact. We also provide some nouvelle data on the systematics of some select taxa, their geographical ranges, microhabitats, activity, and other relevant ecological and natural history features. Finally, we comment on the present conservation status of the herpetofauna in the region. Previous literature and collection records indicate a higher number of species occurring in this area, which suggests that some declines have occurred, especially of amphibians, in last decades.

Amphibian and reptile declines over 35 years at La Selva, Costa Rica.

Amphibians stand at the forefront of a global biodiversity crisis. More than one-third of amphibian species are globally threatened, and over 120 species have likely suffered global extinction since 1980. Most alarmingly, many rapid declines and extinctions are occurring in pristine sites lacking obvious adverse effects of human activities. The causes of these "enigmatic" declines remain highly contested. Still, lack of long-term data on amphibian populations severely limits our understanding of the distribution of amphibian declines, and therefore the ultimate causes of these declines. Here, we identify a systematic community-wide decline in populations of terrestrial amphibians at La Selva Biological Station, a protected old-growth lowland rainforest in lower Central America. We use data collected over 35 years to show that population density of all species of terrestrial amphibians has declined by approximately 75% since 1970, and we show identical trends for all species of common reptiles. The trends we identify are neither consistent with recent emergence of chytridiomycosis nor the climate-linked epidemic hypothesis, two leading putative causes of enigmatic amphibian declines. Instead, our data suggest that declines are due to climate-driven reductions in the quantity of standing leaf litter, a critical microhabitat for amphibians and reptiles in this assemblage. Our results raise further concerns about the global persistence of amphibian populations by identifying widespread declines in species and habitats that are not currently recognized as susceptible to such risks.

Cintilografia óssea no câncer de próstata / Bone scintigraphy in patients with prostate cancer

Este estudo propõe-se a revisar os aspectos de indicação da cintilografia óssea no estadiamento e acompanhamento dos pacientes com câncer de próstata. Os autores fazem um levantamento da literatura e analisam os critérios de indicação do exame, comparando-o com outras modalidades propedêuticas na avaliação desses pacientes. As aplicações da cintilografia óssea no câncer de próstata são estabelecidas segundo os novos parâmetros descritos na literatura, levando em conta, ainda, a relação custo/benefício.

The aim of this study is to look over the indications for bone scintigraphy in the staging and follow-up of patients with prostate cancer. The authors reviewed the literature on the subject and analyzed the criteria used for indication of this test, and compared it with other methods for the evaluation of patients with this condition. Clinical applications of bone scintigraphy in prostate cancer are established according to new parameters described in the literature, also taking into consideration its cost-effectiveness.

Tamaño, estructura y distribución de una población de Crocodylus acutus (Crocodylia: Crocodilidae) en Costa Rica / Size, structure and distribution of a population of Crocodylus acutus (Crocodylia: Crocodilidae) in Costa Rica

Spatial distribution and population size of Crocodylus acutus were estimated during the dry season (January-April) of 1989 and 1990 in the Grande de Tárcoles river, SO Costa Rica. A high density (19.1 individuals/Km) was found, with no difference between years. The size-class distribution was 43.9% juvenile, 21.3% sub-adult and 34.8% adult. Similar results have been reported from other parts of its range