Spiral Deployment of Optical Fiber Sensors for Distributed Strain Measurement in Seven-Wire Twisted Steel Cables, Post-Tensioned against Precast Concrete Bars.

On-time monitoring and condition assessments of steel cables provide mission-critical data for informed decision making, ensuring the structural safety of post-tensioned concrete structures. This study aimed to develop a spiral deployment scheme of distributed fiber optic sensors (DFOS) and to monitor/assess the post-tensioned force in seven-wire twisted steel cables, based on the pulse-pre-pump Brillouin optical time domain analysis. Each DFOS was placed in a spiral shape between two surface wires of a steel cable and glued to the steel cable by epoxy. Image observations were conducted to investigate the entireness and bonding condition between the optical fiber and the steel wires. Eight concrete bar specimens were cast, each with a pre-embedded plastic or metal duct at its center and each was post-tensioned by a steel strand through the duct once they were instrumented with two strain and two temperature sensors. The strand was loaded/unloaded and monitored by measuring the Brillouin frequency shifts and correlating them with the applied strains and the resulting cable force after temperature compensation. The maximum, minimum, and average cable forces integrated from the measured stain data were compared and validated with those from a load cell. The maximum (or average) cable force was linearly related to the ground truth data with a less than 10% error between them, after any initial slack had been removed from the test setup. The post-tensioned force loss was bounded by approximately 30%, using the test setup designed in this study.

Distributed Fiber Optic Measurements of Strain and Temperature in Long-Span Composite Floor Beams with Simple Shear Connections Subject to Compartment Fires.

This study explores an instrumentation strategy using distributed fiber optic sensors to measure strain and temperature through the concrete volume in large-scale structures. Single-mode optical fibers were deployed in three 12.8 m long steel and concrete composite floor specimens tested under mechanical or combined mechanical and fire loading. The concrete slab in each specimen was instrumented with five strain and temperature fiber optic sensors along the centerline of the slab to determine the variation of the measurands through the depth of the concrete. Two additional fiber optic temperature sensors were arranged in a zigzag pattern at mid-depth in the concrete to map the horizontal spatial temperature distribution across each slab. Pulse pre-pump Brillouin optical time domain analysis (PPP-BOTDA) was used to determine strains and temperatures at thousands of locations at time intervals of a few minutes. Comparisons with co-located strain gauges and theoretical calculations indicate good agreement in overall spatial distribution along the length of the beam tested at ambient temperature, while the fiber optic sensors additionally capture strain fluctuations associated with local geometric variations in the specimen. Strain measurements with the distributed fiber optic sensors at elevated temperatures were unsuccessful. Comparisons with co-located thermocouples show that while the increased spatial resolution provides new insights about temperature phenomena, challenges for local temperature measurements were encountered during this first attempt at application to large-scale specimens.

Micrometer-accuracy 2D displacement interferometer with plasmonic metasurface resonators.

In this Letter, a high-accuracy, two-dimensional displacement sensor is proposed, designed, and demonstrated based on the concept of an extrinsic Fabry-Perot Interferometer. The sensor is composed of two bundled single-mode optic fibers in parallel and two plasmonic metasurface resonators inscribed on a gold substrate via a focused ion beam. The fiber end surface and the metasurface are in parallel with a small cavity between. The cavity change or Z-component displacement is determined from the pattern of interference fringes. The X-component displacement, perpendicular to the Z component, is identified from wavelength-selective metasurface resonators, which possess unique resonant wavelengths due to different nanostructure designs. The sensor was calibrated with six displacements applied through a three-axis precision linear stage. Test results indicated that the proposed interferometer can measure displacements with a maximum error of 5.4 µm or 2.2%.

Measuring Three-Dimensional Temperature Distributions in Steel-Concrete Composite Slabs Subjected to Fire Using Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors.

Detailed information about temperature distribution can be important to understand structural behavior in fire. This study develops a method to image three-dimensional temperature distributions in steel-concrete composite slabs using distributed fiber optic sensors. The feasibility of the method is explored using six 1.2 m × 0.9 m steel-concrete composite slabs instrumented with distributed sensors and thermocouples subjected to fire for over 3 h. Dense point clouds of temperature in the slabs were measured using the distributed sensors. The results show that the distributed sensors operated at material temperatures up to 960 °C with acceptable accuracy for many structural fire applications. The measured non-uniform temperature distributions indicate a spatially distributed thermal response in steel-concrete composite slabs, which can only be adequately captured using approaches that provide a high density of through-depth data points.

Corrosion-Induced Mass Loss Measurement under Strain Conditions through Gr/AgNW-Based, Fe-C Coated LPFG Sensors.

In this study, graphene/silver nanowire (Gr/AgNW)-based, Fe-C coated long period fiber gratings (LPFG) sensors were tested up to 72 hours in 3.5 w.t% NaCl solution for corrosion-induced mass loss measurement under four strain levels: 0, 500, 1000 and 1500 µÎµ. The crack and interfacial bonding behaviors of laminate Fe-C and Gr/AgNW layer structures were characterized using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and electrical resistance measurement. Both optical transmission spectra and electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) data were simultaneously measured from each sensor. Under increasing strains, transverse cracks appeared first and were followed by longitudinal cracks on the laminate layer structures. The spacing of transverse cracks and the length of longitudinal cracks were determined by the bond strength at the weak Fe-C and Gr/AgNW interface. During corrosion tests, the shift in resonant wavelength of the Fe-C coated LPFG sensors resulted from the effects of the Fe-C layer thinning and the NaCl solution penetration through cracks on the evanescent field surrounding the LPFG sensors. Compared with the zero-strained sensor, the strain-induced cracks on the laminate layer structures initially increased and then decreased the shift in resonant wavelength in two main stages of the Fe-C corrosion process. In each corrosion stage, the Fe-C mass loss was linearly related to the shift in resonant wavelength under zero strain and with the applied strain taken into account in general cases. The general correlation equation was validated at 700 and 1200 µÎµ to a maximum error of 2.5% in comparison with 46.5% from the zero-strain correlation equation.

Review of Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Fire Engineering.

Reliable and accurate measurements of temperature and strain in structures subjected to fire can be difficult to obtain using traditional sensing technologies based on electrical signals. Fiber optic sensors, which are based on light signals, solve many of the problems of monitoring structures in high temperature environments; however, they present their own challenges. This paper, which is intended for structural engineers new to fiber optic sensors, reviews various fiber optic sensors that have been used to make measurements in structure fires, including the sensing principles, fabrication, key characteristics, and recently-reported applications. Three categories of fiber optic sensors are reviewed: Grating-based sensors, interferometer sensors, and distributed sensors.

The Effects of Silica on the Properties of Vitreous Enamels.

Ground coat enamels for low carbon steel that contain silica as a mill addition have been developed to study the changes of their properties. Acid-resistant commercial enamel where silica addition was varied from 0 to 10.0 wt % was used for this investigation. The effects of the addition on the corrosion resistance, thermal properties, electrical properties, and mechanical adherence of the enamel to low carbon steel were studied. The corrosion resistance of the steel enameled coupons was tested using a salt spray (fog) apparatus for time periods reaching 168 h at room temperature. It was found that, although the density was not affected, the adherence decreased with an increase in silica content. As expected, the silica addition decreased the coefficient of thermal expansion, which is directly related to the increasing stress between the glass and steel in accordance with the adherence results. A mill addition of 7.5 wt% of silica to the samples was sufficient to obtain adequate enamel adherence and good corrosion resistance. Furthermore, the addition of silica influenced the electrical conductivity and dielectric permittivity measurements at room temperature and the conductivity measured in a wide frequency range (1 Hz⁻1 MHz). The dielectric permittivity measured at 1 MHz showed decrease after the addition of up to 7.5 wt% of silica.

Feasibility of Distributed Fiber Optic Sensor for Corrosion Monitoring of Steel Bars in Reinforced Concrete.

This study investigates the feasibility of distributed fiber optic sensor for corrosion monitoring of steel bars embedded in concrete. Two sensor installation methods are compared: (1) attaching the sensor along the bar and (2) winding the sensor on the bar. For the second method, optical fibers were winded spirally on steel bars with different spacings: 0 mm, 2 mm, 5 mm, and 10 mm. Steel bar pull-out testing was conducted to evaluate the effect of presence of distributed sensor on the bond strength of steel⁻concrete interface. Electrochemical testing was carried out to assess the influence of the installation methods on the corrosion resistance of the reinforced concrete. Winding the optical fiber on steel bars with a 10-mm spacing does not affect the bond strength and corrosion resistance and allows real-time corrosion monitoring. The distributed sensor data can be used to estimate the corrosion induced steel loss and predict concrete cracking.

Multi-scale progressive failure mechanism and mechanical properties of nanofibrous polyurea aerogels.

The nonlinear mechanical properties, deformation and failure mechanisms of polyurea aerogels (PUAs) were investigated using a multi-scale approach that combines nanoindentation, analytical and computational modeling. The atomistic structure of primary particles of PUAs and their mechanical interactions were investigated with molecular dynamics simulations. From nanoindentation we identified four deformation and failure modes: free ligament buckling, cell ligament bending, stable cell collapsing, and ligament crush induced strain hardening. The corresponding structural evolution during indentation and strain hardening were analyzed and modeled. The material scaling properties were found to be dependent on both the relative density and the secondary particle size of PUAs. Using a porosity-dependent material constitutive model, a linear relationship was found between the strain hardening index and secondary particle size instead the conventional power-law relationship. Finally, the structural efficiency of PUAs with respect to the capability for energy absorption is evaluated as a function of structural parameters and base polymeric material properties.

Temperature Measurement and Damage Detection in Concrete Beams Exposed to Fire Using PPP-BOTDA Based Fiber Optic Sensors.

In this study, distributed fiber optic sensors based on pulse pre-pump Brillouin optical time domain analysis (PPP-BODTA) are characterized and deployed to measure spatially-distributed temperatures in reinforced concrete specimens exposed to fire. Four beams were tested to failure in a natural gas fueled compartment fire, each instrumented with one fused silica, single-mode optical fiber as a distributed sensor and four thermocouples. Prior to concrete cracking, the distributed temperature was validated at locations of the thermocouples by a relative difference of less than 9 %. The cracks in concrete can be identified as sharp peaks in the temperature distribution since the cracks are locally filled with hot air. Concrete cracking did not affect the sensitivity of the distributed sensor but concrete spalling broke the optical fiber loop required for PPP-BOTDA measurements.

Experimental Analysis of Steel Beams Subjected to Fire Enhanced by Brillouin Scattering-Based Fiber Optic Sensor Data.

This paper presents high temperature measurements using a Brillouin scattering-based fiber optic sensor and the application of the measured temperatures and building code recommended material parameters into enhanced thermomechanical analysis of simply supported steel beams subjected to combined thermal and mechanical loading. The distributed temperature sensor captures detailed, nonuniform temperature distributions that are compared locally with thermocouple measurements with less than 4.7% average difference at 95% confidence level. The simulated strains and deflections are validated using measurements from a second distributed fiber optic (strain) sensor and two linear potentiometers, respectively. The results demonstrate that the temperature-dependent material properties specified in the four investigated building codes lead to strain predictions with less than 13% average error at 95% confidence level and that the Europe building code provided the best predictions. However, the implicit consideration of creep in Europe is insufficient when the beam temperature exceeds 800°C.

High-temperature measurement with Brillouin optical time domain analysis of an annealed fused-silica single-mode fiber.

The effect of annealing is experimentally studied for a fused silica, fully distributed fiber optic sensor based on the pulse pre-pump Brillouin optical time domain analysis (PPP-BOTDA). Within a heating rate of 4.3°C/min and 30.6°C/min, and a sustained peak temperature for 120 and 240 min, annealing extended the sensor's upper operation temperature from 800°C to 1000°C and reduced the sensor's measurement variability over a temperature range of 22°C to 1000°C with a maximum Brillouin frequency variation of 1%. The annealed sensor had a linearly decreasing Brillouin frequency sensitivity from 1.349×10-3 GHz/°C at 22°C to 0.419×10-3 GHz/°C at 1000°C. The time required to achieve a stable annealing effect decayed exponentially with annealing temperature.

A Fe-C coated long-period fiber grating sensor for corrosion-induced mass loss measurement.

This Letter reports a Fe-C coated long period fiber gratings sensor with a grating period of 387±0.1 µm for corrosion monitoring of low carbon steel in a 3.5 wt. % NaCl solution. An LPFG sensor was first deposited with a 0.8 µm thick layer of silver (Ag) and then electroplated with a 20 µm thick Fe-C coating. The chemical composition of the Fe-C coating was designed to include the main elements of low carbon steel. The resonant wavelength of the coated sensor was correlated with the mass loss of steel over time. Test results indicated a corrosion sensitivity of 0.0423 nm per 1% mass loss up to 80% Fe-C mass loss and 0.576 nm per 1% mass loss between 80% and 95% Fe-C mass loss. The corrosion sensitivity of such a Fe-C coated LPFG sensor was a trade-off for the service life of the sensor, both depending on thicknesses of the inner silver layer and the outer Fe-C coating.

Corrosion Resistance of a Sand Particle-Modified Enamel Coating Applied to Smooth Steel Bars.

The protective performance of a sand particle-modified enamel coating on reinforcing steel bars was evaluated in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Seven percentages of sand particles by weight were investigated: 0%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 50% and 70%. The phase composition of the enamel coating and sand particles were determined with the X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique. The surface and cross-sectional morphologies of the sand particle-modified enamel coating were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). XRD tests revealed three phases of sand particles: SiO2, CaCO3 and MgCO3. SEM images demonstrated that the enamel coating wetted well with the sand particles. However, a weak enamel coating zone was formed around the sand particles due to concentrated air bubbles, leading to micro-cracks as hydrogen gas pressure builds up and exceeds the tensile strength of the weak zone. As a result, the addition of sand particles into the enamel coating reduced both the coating and corrosion resistances.