FUNGAL FLORA OF ROSETTE QUILLS IN THE NORTH AMERICAN PORCUPINE (ERETHIZON DORSATUM) IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES.

The North American (NA) porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) is a rodent species with specialized hair structures called quills designed to detach and penetrate into tissues of any human or animal coming into contact with them. The objective of this study was to characterize the fungal flora of the quills in the region of the rosette in wild NA porcupines to further define health risks to NA porcupines and any animal coming into contact with the quills. A total of 17 adult NA porcupines were sampled, and fungal culture was performed. Fungal organisms were cultured from 15 (88.2%) of 17 samples. Thirty-three isolates of 10 different fungal genera were cultured. The most frequently isolated fungi were Lodderomyces elongisporus (n = 7, 41.2%), Candida spp. (n = 3, 17.6%), and Penicillium spp. (n = 2, 11.8%). Eleven (64.7%) individuals grew multiple fungal organisms. In humans and animals quilled by porcupines, fungal culture should be considered in cases of infection, and if isolates resembling Candida spp. are isolated, matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time of flight or molecular methods are necessary to rule out L. elongisporus.

Cutaneous Lesions in the Gular Region Caused by Feather Follicle Infestation with Harpirhynchidae sp. Mites in Great Crested Flycatchers (Myiarchus crinitus) in New York, USA 2016-23.

Great Crested Flycatchers (Myiarchus crinitus), migratory passerines with a breeding range throughout the northeastern, midwestern, and southern US, are banded annually at the Braddock Bay Bird Observatory located on the southern shore of Lake Ontario, New York, USA. In 2016, a Great Crested Flycatcher was observed with distinct lesions in the gular and ventral neck region, which prompted evaluation for similar lesions in subsequently trapped flycatchers and other passerine species. From 2016 to 2023, 62/102 banded Great Crested Flycatchers had their gular region examined, and seven were found to have lesions (11.3% incidence). Similar lesions were not found in any other species. Lesions were localized to the gular region and included extensive feather loss with thickened, corrugated, pale-yellow skin. Grossly visible 1- to 2-mm-diameter, raised, white-to-yellow foci throughout the affected region corresponded microscopically to feather follicles that were massively dilated with mites. Morphologic analysis of mites obtained from skin scrapes revealed that this mite species belongs to the family Harpirhynchidae. Mites in this family have restricted avian host ranges and cause varying clinical presentations in passerines, though many species remain unidentified. PCR efforts were unsuccessful in yielding a species-level identification. Further monitoring of Great Crested Flycatchers and other avian species is warranted, as the fitness implications of this ectoparasitism at the individual and population levels are not known.

SERUM VITAMIN D AND SELECTED BIOMARKERS OF CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS IN ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS) MANAGED AT A LOW LATITUDE.

An understanding of species-specific vitamin D metabolism and its role in calcium homeostasis is essential for correct diet formulation and development of husbandry protocols for managed nondomestic species. This study documented serum vitamin D metabolites and other analytes involved in calcium homeostasis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) managed at a latitude similar to their wild natural habitat. Serum values for 33 elephants managed at a low latitude were measured in the peak of summer, revealing low vitamin D2 (25(OH)D2 2.3 ± 0.6 ng/ ml and 24,25(OH)2D2 2.17 ± 0.52 ng/ml) and nondetectable vitamin D3. Serum minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium), ionized calcium, and parathyroid hormone were within normal reported ranges. In comparison with previously reported values in elephants managed at a high latitude, 25(OH)D2 (P < 0.001), 24,25(OH)2D2 (P = 0.001), and magnesium (P = 0.013) were significantly lower, and parathyroid hormone was significantly higher (P < 0.001). The lack of D3 production during ample sun exposure at a low latitude suggests that Asian elephants are incapable of cutaneous photobiosynthesis of vitamin D, and that low serum D2 is normal for this species.

SARCOPTIC MANGE IN FREE-RANGING NORTH AMERICAN PORCUPINES (ERETHIZON DORSATUM) IN NEW YORK STATE.

Sarcoptic mange causes pruritic and crusting dermatitis in a large number of mammalian species with varying population impacts. Between 2016 and 2022, 15 North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) were diagnosed with sarcoptic mange at Cornell University's Janet L. Swanson Wildlife Hospital in Ithaca, New York. Disease severity varied among individuals but all shared a similar unique presentation with thick, pale tan to yellow crusts limited in distribution to the ventral, nonquilled areas of the body, including the ventral abdomen and thorax, distal limbs, and face. The thick, hard nature of the crusts resulted in additional complications in many individuals, including inability to move the jaw and cracking and fissuring of the crusts and skin over joints of the limbs. Mites were plentiful within the crusts, with some burrowing into the epidermis as deep as the stratum spinosum. Secondary bacterial and/or fungal dermatitis were common, resulting in sepsis and death in three of the porcupines. Treatment with avermectins (ivermectin and/or selamectin) for 4-5 wk was successful in 12 cases in combination with other supportive care measures, including subcutaneous fluids, antimicrobials, and analgesics. Porcupines were hospitalized for an average of 18 d (ranging from 7 to 50 d) prior to transfer to a licensed wildlife rehabilitator for continued treatment and eventual release back into the wild.

Ciprofloxacin-resistant ST198 Salmonella Kentucky in a hospitalized American black bear (Ursus americanus), with evidence of subsequent nosocomial transmission.

Global emergence of ciprofloxacin-resistant ST198 Salmonella Kentucky poses an important public health threat. While conducting Salmonella surveillance among wildlife patients admitted to our veterinary medical teaching hospital in central New York, we isolated multidrug-resistant (MDR) ST198 Salmonella Kentucky from an American black bear (Ursus americanus) in September 2020. The isolate was phenotypically resistant to numerous antimicrobial agents, including ceftriaxone and ciprofloxacin, and several antimicrobial resistance genes and mutational resistance determinants were detected. Between April and July 2021, the same strain of MDR ST198 Salmonella Kentucky was also isolated from seven other wildlife patients and multiple hospital environmental locations, suggesting nosocomial transmission. Ciprofloxacin resistance is conferred by triple point mutations in the quinolone resistance-determining regions (QRDRs), a genotypic profile indicative of Clade ST198.2. To our knowledge, this is the first report of this ciprofloxacin-resistant clade being identified in animals or animal products in the United States. Timely resolution of the outbreak was achieved following efforts to further enhance environmental disinfection protocols and biosecurity measures at the hospital, with no known cases or positive environmental samples after July 2021.

EXPERIMENTAL CHOLECALCIFEROL SUPPLEMENTATION IN A HERD OF MANAGED ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

Vitamin D supplementation may pose a significant health risk in species where levels of deficiency, sufficiency, and toxicity have not been clearly established, and species-specific research on vitamin D supplementation should be performed. This study documented the effect of vitamin D supplementation on serum vitamin D metabolites and other analytes of Ca homeostasis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Six adult Asian elephants received PO supplementation with cholecalciferol at 300 IU/kg of body weight (BW) once a week for 24 wk. Serum was analyzed every 4 wk for 25-hydroxyvitamin D2/D3 [25(OH)D]; 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D2/D3 [24,25(OH)2D]; 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D]; parathyroid hormone (PTH); total Ca; ionized Ca (iCa); P; and Mg. After the supplement was discontinued, serum 25(OH)D2/D3 was measured every 4 wk until levels returned to baseline. At the start of the study, the average serum 25(OH)D3 was nondetectable (<1.5 ng/ml). With cholecalciferol supplementation, 25(OH)D3 increased at an average rate of 2.26 ng/ml per month and reached an average concentration of 12.9 ± 3.46 ng/ml at 24 wk. Both 24,25(OH)2D3 and 1,25(OH)2D increased over time with supplementation from an average of <1.5 to 12.9 ng/ml and from 9.67 to 36.4 pg/ml, respectively. PTH, iCa, Ca, P, and Mg remained within reported normal ranges throughout supplementation. After the supplement was discontinued, serum 25(OH)D3 demonstrated a slow decline to baseline, taking an average of 48 wk. Elephants demonstrated significant individual variation in response to supplementation and subsequent return to baseline. Supplementation of Asian elephants with a weekly dose of 300 IU/kg BW cholecalciferol for 24 wk appears to be effective and safe. Additional clinical studies would be necessary to investigate the safety of other routes of administration, dosages, and duration of vitamin D supplementation, as well as associated health benefits.

Widespread, symmetric, noninflammatory alopecia associated with follicular dysplasia in the American red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus).

This report describes a unique pattern of alopecia in 8 American red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) from 2013 to 2021. All animals were juveniles; 6 were female and 2 were male. Seven presented between September and November, and one presented in April. All squirrels had widespread, bilaterally symmetric, noninflammatory, well-demarcated alopecia involving the entire trunk and legs and normal hair on their muzzle and dorsal surfaces of their paws. Six months later, a normal hair coat had grown on 2 of the animals, which were littermates. Hair fully grew 2 months later in another animal. Histopathology of the alopecic skin was performed in 7 of 8 animals. The following changes were noted: bent and coiled hairs, perforating folliculitis, melanin clumping, and distortion of hair shafts. Based on features of follicular dysplasia and apparent seasonality, this condition has some similarities to canine seasonal flank alopecia. A genetic etiology is suspected.

Histopathologic and molecular characterization of Erethizon dorsatum papillomavirus 1 and Erethizon dorsatum papillomavirus 2 infection in North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum).

Erethizon dorsatum papillomavirus 1 (EdPV1) and Erethizon dorsatum papillomavirus 2 (EdPV2) are associated with cutaneous papillomas in North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum). This study defined gross, histopathologic, and molecular characteristics of viral papillomas in 10 North American porcupines submitted to the New York State Animal Health Diagnostic Center. Investigation for the presence of EdPV1 and EdPV2 DNA via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed in 9 of the 10 (90.0%) porcupines, and all porcupines were investigated for the detection and localization of EdPV1 and EdPV2 E6 and E7 nucleic acid via chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH). Next-generation sequencing (NGS) was performed in 2 porcupines. Papillomas were diagnosed on the muzzle (n = 4), caudal dorsum (n = 1), upper lip (n = 1), chin (n = 1), gingiva (n = 2), and nasal planum (n = 1). Histologically, the lesions consisted of hyperplastic epidermis or epithelium with orthokeratotic keratin, prominent keratohyalin granules, and intranuclear inclusion bodies. PCR identified EdPV1 in 6 of 9 samples and EdPV2 in the remaining 3 samples. NGS resulted in 100% genome coverage of EdPV1 and 76.20% genome coverage of EdPV2 compared with GenBank reference sequences, with 99.8% sequence identity to the complete EdPV2 L1 gene of a novel subtype recently identified in France. Hybridization patterns in 9 of the 10 (90.0%) porcupines were characterized by strong nuclear signals in the superficial epidermis, with strong nuclear and punctate cytoplasmic signals in the stratum spinosum and basale. In one animal, CISH suggested dual EdPV1 and EdPV2 infection.

EVALUATION OF ß-HYDROXYBUTYRATE, AMINO ACIDS, AND SELECTED CHEMISTRY VALUES IN THE PLASMA OF FREE-RANGING RED-TAILED HAWKS (BUTEO JAMAICENSIS).

The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is a raptor species native to North America that is commonly presented to wildlife rehabilitators and veterinarians, but little is known about biomarkers of metabolic status in this species. This study evaluates plasma ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and free amino acids in 24 free-ranging red-tailed hawks in good body condition in order to establish reference intervals for these values. Standard biochemical analytes were also measured. The mean plasma BHB level measured was 13.9 mg/dl. Plasma amino acids were not similar to the few available reports in avian species. Standard biochemical analytes were similar to those previously reported for red-tailed hawks. These data serve as a foundation for further investigation into the use of these biomarkers to assess metabolic status of this species in health and disease.

IN VIVO CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF MYCOTIC KERATITIS IN OWLS (BUBO SCANDIACUS, STRIX VARIA) AND A WOODCOCK (SCOLOPAX MINOR): THREE CASES.

This case series describes the use of in vivo confocal microscopy in the diagnosis and treatment of mycotic keratitis in two owls (one Bubo scandiacus, one Strix varia) and one woodcock (Scolopax minor). Each bird was at increased risk of fungal infection due to recent injury or stress. Ophthalmic findings in all birds included blepharospasm, ocular discharge, ulcerative keratitis, white or yellow corneal plaques, and anterior uveitis. Fungal hyphae were identified in corneal samples from all three eyes examined cytologically and in all three eyes by using in vivo confocal microscopy. Aspergillus fumigatus was isolated from a corneal culture in one bird. Despite medical treatment, progressive ocular disease prompted enucleation in two birds. Fungal hyphae were detected by histopathology in one of the two enucleated eyes. In vivo confocal microscopy aided the diagnosis of fungal keratitis in all birds and was the only diagnostic method that allowed immediate, real-time quantification of the extent (area and depth) and severity of mycotic keratitis.

Survival and Release of 5 American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) Naturally Infected With West Nile Virus.

West Nile virus (WNV) has had a significant effect on avian populations in the United States since being first identified in 1999. Avian species in WNV endemic areas do not suffer the same level of mortality that has been reported in birds within the United States since the virus was first identified in North America. Because of their unique susceptibility, American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) are often used to monitor the spread and severity of WNV in North America. American crows with WNV infections are received and treated at the Janet L. Swanson Wildlife Hospital (Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA) on a regular basis during the summer and fall and have historically had a 100% mortality rate. This report describes WNV-positive American crows that were treated, recovered from the infection, and were subsequently released. The 5 American crows in this case series were tested, when possible, by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and plaque reduction neutralization on admission and monitored with both PCR and plaque reduction neutralization throughout their rehabilitation process. Four of the 5 birds had a negative PCR test before release, and 1 bird had a "suspect" positive PCR test result before release. One of the crows was confirmed to have survived for at least 2.5 years after release. Viral shedding was documented up to 93 days after initial hospitalization, which is longer than any previous report of WNV shedding in an American crow.

Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from wildlife in central New York.

BACKGROUND: Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) present in farming soil and food-processing facilities threatens food safety, but little is known about the carriage of Lm by wildlife. OBJECTIVES: We estimated the prevalence of faecal Lm shedding among wildlife admitted to a veterinary medical teaching hospital in central New York and characterized a subset of the Lm isolates. METHODS: Wildlife samples were collected between May 2018 and December 2019. We characterized the Lm isolates by assessing the growth at three temperatures approximating the body temperatures of reptiles (25°C), mammals (37°C), and birds (42°C) and identifying genotypic characteristics related to transmission and virulence. RESULTS: The apparent prevalence of faecal Lm shedding was 5.6% [18/324; 95% confidence interval (CI), 3.3%-8.6%]. Among 13 isolates that represented two lineages and 11 clonal complexes, three and five isolates were grouped into the same SNP clusters with human clinical isolates and environmental isolates, respectively. However, specific SNP difference data showed that Lm from wildlife was generally not closely related (>22 SNP differences) to Lm from human clinical sources and the food-processing environment. While the stress response locus SSI-2 was absent, SSI-1 was found in four isolates. Virulence genes prfA, plcA, hly, mpl, actA, plcB, inlA, inlB, inlC, inlE, inlH, inlJ, and inlK were present, without any premature stop codons, in all isolates. Virulence loci Listeria pathogenicity island 3 (LIPI-3) and LIPI-4, which have been linked to hypervirulence, and inlG were found in four, three, and seven isolates, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Wildlife represents a potential reservoir for genetically diverse and putatively hypervirulent Lm strains. No statistically significant association between growth parameters and hosts was observed. However, compared to lineage I isolates, lineage II isolates showed significantly (p < 0.05) faster growth at 25°C and significantly slower growth at 42°C, suggesting that wildlife Lm isolates that belong to lineages I and II differ in their ability to grow at 25°C and 42°C.

Cutaneous concentrations of 7-dehydrocholesterol in Hoffmann's two-toed sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni) in managed care.

Hoffmann's two-toed sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni) are unique animals popular in zoological settings. The role of vitamin D in the maintenance of calcium homeostasis in this species is unexplored, although disorders of calcium homeostasis have been reported in managed sloths, including urolithiasis and soft tissue mineralization. This study assessed cutaneous concentrations of 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) in nine indoor-housed Hoffmann's two-toed sloths, as a means of evaluating the potential for cutaneous photobiosynthesis of vitamin D3 . Samples were obtained from both abdominal and lumbar regions of the skin to assess for regional variation in 7-DHC concentration. The average concentration of 7-DHC in the sloth skin was low (0.197 ± 0.02 nmol/cm2 ). Location had a significant effect on 7-DHC level only when concentrations were expressed based on the wet weight of the sample (ng/g), but levels were similar when values were normalized to biopsy surface area (nmol/cm2 ).

VITAMIN D STATUS OF INDOOR-HOUSED HOFFMANN'S TWO-TOED SLOTHS (CHOLOEPUS HOFFMANNI): A PILOT STUDY.

Disorders of calcium homeostasis have been reported with some frequency in two-toed sloths, yet little investigation has been performed on vitamin D and mineral metabolism in these species. This study evaluates biomarkers involved in vitamin D and calcium metabolism in a group of nine managed Hoffmann's two-toed sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni), correlated with diet analysis. Serum was analyzed for both vitamin D2 and D3 metabolites, minerals (calcium [Ca], phosphorus [P], and magnesium [Mg]), parathyroid hormone (PTH), and ionized calcium (iCa). The diet was analyzed for proximate nutrients, minerals and vitamins D2 and D3, and feed intake was estimated. Average values reported for D3 metabolites, including 25(OH)D3, 1,25(OH)2D3, and 24,25(OH)2D3, were 25.1 ng/ml, 52.23 pg/ml, and 7.65 ng/ml, respectively. Average PTH was 0.22 pmol/L while average iCa was 1.46 mmol/L. Values reported for Ca, P, Mg were within expected ranges. Dietary concentration of D3 was 6.7 ng/g and the average daily intake per sloth was 113.7 IU/kg body weight. No detectable levels of vitamin D2 metabolites 25(OH)D2, 1,25(OH)2D2, or 24,25(OH)2D2 were found in the diet or serum. These data will serve as a starting point for future investigations into the vitamin D metabolism and calcium homeostasis of two-toed sloths to improve the health in managed settings.

SALMONELLA ISOLATED FROM CENTRAL NEW YORK WILDLIFE ADMITTED TO A VETERINARY MEDICAL TEACHING HOSPITAL.

The role of wildlife as a source of zoonotic Salmonella transmission is poorly understood, as are the clinical implications of this pathogen among wildlife species. Wildlife hospitals represent an important location to conduct Salmonella surveillance, given the wide variety of species admitted for medical and surgical care. Our objectives were to estimate the prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding among wildlife admitted to a veterinary medical teaching hospital, to identify risk factors for infection, and to fully characterize the isolates. Voided fecal samples (birds and mammals) and cloacal swab samples (reptiles and amphibians) were collected between May 2018 and March 2020. Standard bacteriologic culture methods were used to detect Salmonella, and isolates were characterized via serotyping, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and whole-genome sequencing. Samples were collected from 348 wildlife patients representing 74 wildlife species, and the apparent prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding was 1.4% (5/348; 95% confidence interval, 0.5-3.3%). Four serotypes were identified, and isolates were phenotypically susceptible to all antimicrobial agents tested. Two isolates were closely related to human clinical isolates, demonstrating the overlap between wildlife and human pathogens. Fecal Salmonella shedding among hospitalized wildlife appears to be uncommon, and the risk of either nosocomial or zoonotic Salmonella transmission is presumably low. Nevertheless, the occurrence of Salmonella in wildlife, particularly among common species found in a wide array of habitats, poses a potential threat to public health and may result in transmission to more-vulnerable wildlife populations.

Regional alopecia and dermatitis due to Lodderomyces elongisporus in a North American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum).

BACKGROUND: Lodderomyces elongisporus is a yeast with a worldwide distribution that has been reported as a cause of infection in immunocompromised humans and in a dog that had been quilled by a porcupine. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this report is to describe the clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment of dermatitis caused by L. elongisporus in a North American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). ANIMAL: One wild adult male North American porcupine from New York state, USA. METHODS AND MATERIALS: The porcupine was presented for alopecia and scaling dermatitis over the caudal dorsum. Diagnostic testing included cytological evaluation, trichogram, bacterial and fungal culture, and histopathological examination of skin biopsies. RESULTS: Histopathological findings from skin specimens demonstrated mild eosinophilic perivascular-to-interstitial dermatitis with superficial dermal fibrosis, mild epidermal hyperplasia with moderate-to-marked intracorneal and intrafollicular yeast. Fungal culture with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization confirmed L. elongisporus as the cause of the dermatitis. The porcupine was treated with a six week course of oral itraconazole with clinical resolution. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Infection with L. elongisporus should be included as a differential diagnosis for North American porcupines exhibiting signs of dermatitis including scaling and alopecia. This case report may be relevant for the diagnosis and treatment of porcupines with dermatitis and for animals or humans that have been quilled by a porcupine.

THE VITAMIN D STATUS OF ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS) MANAGED IN A NORTHERN TEMPERATE CLIMATE.

Knowledge about the normal metabolism and involvement of vitamin D in elephant calcium homeostasis is essential to understanding the possible role of vitamin D in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) health, as well as to informing accurate diet formulation. This study provides an evaluation of analytes involved in vitamin D metabolism, in conjunction with dietary intake and ultraviolet light (UV) exposure, in Asian elephants managed in a northern temperate climate. Once monthly, for a total of 12 mo, serum from six adult Asian elephants was analyzed for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D], 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [24,25(OH)2D], 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D], parathyroid hormone (PTH), total calcium (Ca), ionized calcium (iCa), phosphorus (P), and magnesium (Mg). The diet was analyzed monthly for vitamin D, Ca, and P. Monthly average vitamin D-weighted UV daily sums were determined to gauge average UV light exposure within the vitamin D action spectrum. No serum or diet parameters were affected by time or season. Average serum 25(OH)D2 was 7.02 ± 0.85 ng/ml. 25(OH)D3 levels were nondetectable in all samples despite supplementation of the diet with recommended levels of vitamin D3, and UV exposure was at sufficient levels for cutaneous vitamin D synthesis for 6 mo of the year. Levels of 24,25(OH)2D averaged 31.7% higher than 25(OH)D, and average 1,25(OH)2D2 was 11.24 ± 1.04 pg/ml. Values for PTH, Ca, iCa, P, and Mg were within expected ranges for Asian elephants. The information gained from this research expands the knowledge base for these analytes, evaluates 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D for the first time, and provides new information regarding vitamin D metabolism and test interpretation in the Asian elephant.

EVALUATION OF 25-HYDROXYVITAMIN D IN HOFFMANN'S TWO-TOED SLOTHS (CHOLOEPUS HOFFMANNI) USING DRIED BLOOD SPOTS ANALYZED BY LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY-TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY.

Although biochemical analytes have typically been measured using serum or whole blood samples, an increasing number of assays are validated for measurement of analytes from dried blood spots (DBS) on filter paper. DBS techniques are minimally invasive, require only a small sample volume, and simplify processing, storage, and shipment of samples. These qualities make DBS-based assays ideal for sampling of wildlife species in both captive and field settings. In this study, a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay was evaluated for measurement of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in sloths. Paired serum and DBS samples were collected from nine healthy captive Hoffmann's two-toed sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni). Statistical analysis using Passing-Bablok regression analysis, Bland-Altman plots, and the Wilcoxon signed-rank tests found good agreement between 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 measurements in serum and DBS samples. Constant and proportional bias were absent. Results from this study support the use of DBS samples for the evaluation of vitamin D status in Hoffmann's two-toed sloths and provide a foundation for further studies to validate this technique.

DETECTION OF SKUNK ADENOVIRUS 1 IN TWO NORTH AMERICAN PORCUPINES (ERETHIZON DORSATUM) WITH RESPIRATORY DISEASE.

Adenoviruses have been reported to affect a broad range of host species, tend to be species specific, and often affect the respiratory system. This report describes the isolation of an adenovirus from deep nasal swabs of two wild North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) with respiratory diseases that presented to a wildlife hospital. Partial sequences of the deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase gene of the isolated virus were identical to skunk adenovirus (SkAdV-1), also known as pygmy marmoset adenovirus. Both porcupines survived and were released back to the wild after successful medical treatment and rehabilitation. The significance of the adenovirus isolated from these porcupines is unknown; however, this is the first report of an adenovirus in porcupines, and the first report of SkAdV-1 in a rodent.

SURGICAL ANATOMY OF CELIOTOMY APPROACHES TO THE STOMACH IN THE COMMON SNAPPING TURTLE (CHELYDRA SERPENTINA).

Entanglement in or ingestion of fishing gear is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in chelonians. Commercial and recreational fishing activities exert bycatch pressures sufficient to cause population declines in the common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and the alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys spp.). Gastrotomy for the removal of fish hook foreign bodies from the stomach of freshwater turtles typically requires a plastron osteotomy but in sea turtles has been successfully accomplished via soft tissue approaches. This study compared the anatomy and feasibility of soft tissue surgical approaches to the stomach in the common snapping turtle in both the prefemoral and the axillary regions. Anatomical dissections were performed on cadavers of five adult common snapping turtles, and the surgical anatomy of the left axillary and left prefemoral regions was characterized. The left axillary approach required extensive transection of musculature and provided poor exposure of the coelomic cavity and stomach. In contrast, the left prefemoral approach was simple to perform and provided sufficient access to the stomach for gastrotomy. The prefemoral celiotomy has significant advantages over the axillary celiotomy in the common snapping turtle and should be considered the surgical approach of choice for gastrotomy in this species.