Impact of an integrated health, nutrition, and early child stimulation and responsive care intervention package delivered to preterm or term small for gestational age babies during infancy on growth and neurodevelopment: study protocol of an individually randomized controlled trial in India (Small Babies Trial).

BACKGROUND: Preterm and term small for gestational age (SGA) babies are at high risk of experiencing malnutrition and impaired neurodevelopment. Standalone interventions have modest and sometimes inconsistent effects on growth and neurodevelopment in these babies. For greater impact, intervention may be needed in multiple domains-health, nutrition, and psychosocial care and support. Therefore, the combined effects of an integrated intervention package for preterm and term SGA on growth and neurodevelopment are worth investigating. METHODS: An individually randomized controlled trial is being conducted in urban and peri-urban low to middle-socioeconomic neighborhoods in South Delhi, India. Infants are randomized (1:1) into two strata of 1300 preterm and 1300 term SGA infants each to receive the intervention package or routine care. Infants will be followed until 12 months of age. Outcome data will be collected by an independent outcome ascertainment team at infant ages 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months and at 2, 6, and 12 months after delivery for mothers. DISCUSSION: The findings of this study will indicate whether providing an intervention that addresses factors known to limit growth and neurodevelopment can offer substantial benefits to preterm or term SGA infants. The results from this study will increase our understanding of growth and development and guide the design of public health programs in low- and middle-income settings for vulnerable infants. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial has been registered prospectively in Clinical Trial Registry - India # CTRI/2021/11/037881, Registered on 08 November 2021.

Effect of kangaroo mother care initiated in community settings on financial risk protection of low-income households: a randomised controlled trial in Haryana, India.

INTRODUCTION: Many families in low-income and middle-income countries have high out-of-pocket expenditures (OOPE) for healthcare, and some face impoverishment. We aimed to assess the effect of Kangaroo Mother Care initiated in community setting (ciKMC) on financial risk protection estimated by healthcare OOPE, catastrophic healthcare expenditure (CHE) and impoverishment due to healthcare seeking for low birthweight infants, using a randomised controlled trial design. METHODS: We included 4475 low birthweight infants randomised to a ciKMC (2491 infants) and a control (1984 infants) arm, in a large trial conducted between 2017 and 2018 in Haryana, India. We used generalised linear models of the Gaussian family with an identity link to estimate the mean difference in healthcare OOPE, and Cox regression to estimate the HRs for CHE and impoverishment, between the trial arms. RESULTS: Overall, in the 8-week observation period, the mean healthcare OOPE per infant was lower (US$20.0) in the ciKMC arm compared with the control arm (US$25.6) that is, difference of -US$5.5, 95% CI -US$11.4 to US$0.3, p=0.06). Among infants who sought care it was US$8.5 (95% CI -US$17.0 to -US$0.03, p=0.03) lower in the ciKMC arm compared with the control arm. The HR for impoverishment due to healthcare seeking was 0.56 (95% CI 0.36 to 0.89, p=0.01) and it was 0.91 (95% CI 0.74 to 1.12, p=0.37) for CHE. CONCLUSION: ciKMC can substantially reduce the cost of care seeking and the risk of impoverishment for households. Our findings show that supporting mothers to provide KMC to low birthweight infants at home, in addition to reducing early infant mortality, may provide financial risk protection. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: CTRI/2017/10/010114.

Enteral Calcium or Phosphorus Supplementation in Preterm or Low Birth Weight Infants: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To assess effects of calcium or phosphorous supplementation compared with no supplementation in human milk-fed preterm or low birth weight infants. METHODS: Data sources include Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Medline and Embase. We included Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomized trials (quasi-randomized). RESULTS: Three studies (4 reports; 162 infants) were included. At latest follow-up (38 weeks), there was reduction in osteopenia (3 studies, 159 participants, relative risk 0.68, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.46-0.99). At latest follow-up (6 weeks), there was no effect on weight (1 study, 40 participants, mean difference [MD] 138.50 g, 95% CI -82.16 to 359.16); length (1 study, 40 participants, MD 0.77 cm, 95% CI -0.93 to 2.47); and head circumference (1 study, 40 participants, MD 0.33 cm, 95% CI -0.30 to 0.96). At latest follow-up, there was no effect on alkaline phosphatase (55 weeks) (2 studies, 122 participants, MD -126.11 IU/L, 95% CI -298.5 to 46.27, I2 = 73.4%); serum calcium (6 weeks) (1 study, 40 participants, MD 0.54 mg/dL, 95% CI -0.19 to 1.27); and serum phosphorus (6 weeks) (1 study, 40 participants, MD 0.07 mg/dL, 95% CI -0.22 to 0.36). The certainty of evidence ranged from very low to low. No studies reported on mortality and neurodevelopment outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence is insufficient to determine whether enteral supplementation with calcium or phosphorus for preterm or low birth weight infants who are fed mother's own milk or donor human milk is associated with benefit or harm.

Enteral Multiple Micronutrient Supplementation in Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To assess effects of supplementation with 3 or more micronutrients (multiple micronutrients; MMN) compared to no MMN in human milk-fed preterm and low birth weight (LBW) infants. RESULTS: Data on a subgroup of 414 preterm or LBW infants from 2 randomized controlled trials (4 reports) were included. The certainty of evidence ranged from low to very low. For growth outcomes in the MMN compared to the non-MMN group, there was a small increase in weight-for-age (2 trials, 383 participants) and height-for-age z-scores (2 trials, 372 participants); a small decrease in wasting (2 trials, 398 participants); small increases in stunting (2 trials, 399 participants); and an increase in underweight (2 trials, 396 participants). For neurodevelopment outcomes at 78 weeks, we found small increases in Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Version III (BISD-III), scores (cognition, receptive language, expressive language, fine motor, gross motor) in the MMN compared to the non-MMN group (1 trial, 27 participants). There were no studies examining dose or timing of supplementation. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence is insufficient to determine whether enteral MMN supplementation to preterm or LBW infants who are fed mother's own milk is associated with benefit or harm. More trials are needed to generate evidence on mortality, morbidity, growth, and neurodevelopment.

Enteral Iron Supplementation in Preterm or Low Birth Weight Infants: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Iron is needed for growth and development of infants globally, but preterm and low birth weight (LBW) infants are at risk for severe iron deficiencies. To assess the effect of enteral iron supplementation on mortality, morbidity, growth, and neurodevelopment outcomes in preterm or LBW infants fed human milk. Secondary objectives were to assess the effect on biomarkers and dose and timing. METHODS: Data sources include PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library databases to March 16, 2021. Study Selection includes controlled or quasi experimental study designs. Two reviewers independently extracted data. RESULTS: Eight trials (eleven reports; 1093 participants, 7 countries) were included. No trials reported mortality. At latest follow-up, there was little effect on infection (very low certainty evidence, 4 studies, 401 participants, relative risk [RR] 0.98, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.56 to 1.73, I2 = 0.00%) and necrotising enterocolitis (3 studies, 375 participants, RR 1.47, 95% CI 0.68 to 3.20, I2 = 0.00%). There was an increase in linear growth (length) (moderate certainty evidence, 3 studies, 384 participants, mean difference 0.69 cm, 95% CI 0.01 to 1.37, I2 = 0%) but little effect on weight, head circumference, or cognitive development. There was an improvement in anemia (moderate certainty evidence, 2 studies, 381 participants, RR 0.25, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.62, I2 = 0.00%) but no effect on serum ferritin. Limitations include heterogeneity in the included studies. CONCLUSIONS: There are important benefits for human milk-fed preterm and LBW infants from enteral iron supplementation. However, more randomized control trials are required to improve the certainty of evidence.

Enteral Zinc Supplementation in Preterm or Low Birth Weight Infants: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Evidence on the effect of zinc supplementation on health outcomes in preterm or low birth weight (LBW) infants is unclear. We estimated the effect of enteral zinc versus no zinc supplementation in human milk fed preterm or LBW infants on mortality, growth, morbidities, and neurodevelopment. METHODS: Data sources include PubMed, Cochrane Central and Embase databases through March 24, 2021. Study selection was randomized or quazi-experimental trials. Two reviewers independently screened, extracted data, and assessed quality. We reported pooled relative risks (RR) for categorical outcomes, and mean differences (MD) for continuous outcomes. RESULTS: Fourteen trials with 9940 preterm or LBW infants were included. Moderate to low certainty evidence showed that enteral zinc supplementation had little or no effect on mortality (risk ratio 0.73, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.46 to 1.16), but increased weight (MD 378.57, 95% CI 275.26 to 481.88), length (MD 2.92, 95% CI 1.53 to 4.31), head growth (MD 0.56, 95% CI 0.23 to 0.90), and decreased diarrhea (RR 0.81; 95% CI 0.68 to 0.97). There was no effect on acute respiratory infections, bacterial sepsis, and psychomotor development scores. The effect of zinc supplementation on mental development scores is inconclusive. There was no evidence of serious adverse events. Eight trials had some concerns or high risk of bias, small-sized studies, and high heterogeneity between trials led to moderate to very low certainty of evidence. CONCLUSIONS: Zinc supplementation in preterm or LBW infants have benefits on growth and diarrhea prevention. Further research is needed to generate better quality evidence.

Enteral Vitamin D Supplementation in Preterm or Low Birth Weight Infants: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Many preterm and low birth weight (LBW) infants have low vitamin D stores. The objective of this study was to assess effects of enteral vitamin D supplementation compared with no vitamin D supplementation in human milk fed preterm or LBW infants. METHODS: Data sources include Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Medline, and Embase from inception to March 16, 2021. The study selection included randomized trials. Data were extracted and pooled with fixed and random-effects models. RESULTS: We found 3 trials (2479 participants) that compared vitamin D to no vitamin D. At 6 months, there was increase in weight-for-age z-scores (mean difference 0.12, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.01 to 0.22, 1 trial, 1273 participants), height-for-age z-scores (mean difference 0.12, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.21, 1 trial, 1258 participants); at 3 months there was decrease in vitamin D deficiency (risk ratio 0.58, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.68, I2=58%, 2 trials, 504 participants) in vitamin D supplementation groups. However, there was little or no effect on mortality, any serious morbidity, hospitalization, head circumference, growth to 6 years and neurodevelopment. The certainty of evidence ranged from very low to moderate. Fourteen trials (1969 participants) assessed dose and reported no effect on mortality, morbidity, growth, or neurodevelopment, except on parathyroid hormone and vitamin D status. No studies assessed timing. Limitations include heterogeneity and small sample size in included studies. CONCLUSIONS: Enteral vitamin D supplementation improves growth and vitamin D status in preterm and LBW infants.

Anthropometric Indicators as Predictors of Mortality in Early Life Among Low Birthweight Indian Infants.

Background: Low birthweight (LBW) babies (<2.5 kg) are at higher risk of mortality and weight for height z score is currently recommended for identifying infants at risk of mortality. Objective: To compare different anthropometric measures at 28-day of age in a cohort of LBW Indian infants for predicting mortality between 28-day and 180-day of age. Methods: We used data from an individually randomized controlled trial of LBW infants weighing between 1,500 and 2,250 g. Sensitivity, specificity, positive, and negative likelihood ratios, positive and negative predictive values, and area under receiver operating characteristics curves (AUC) were used to estimate the discrimination of mortality risk. The Cox regression was used to estimate hazard ratios and population attributable fraction for each anthropometric indicator. These estimates were calculated for individual as well as combinations of anthropometric indicators at the cut-off of -2 and -3 SD of the WHO 2006 growth standards. Results: Severe underweight (weight-for-age z-scores [WAZ] < -3) had a sensitivity of 75.0%, specificity of 68.0% with an AUC of 0.72. The risk of death was higher (HR 6.18; 95% CI 4.29-8.90) with a population attributable fraction of 0.63 (95% CI 0.52-0.72) for infants severely underweight at 28-day of age. Combination of different anthropometric measures did not perform better than individual measures. Conclusion: Severe underweight (WAZ < -3) better discriminated deaths among LBW infants < 6 months of age. It can be considered for diagnosis of nutritionally at-risk infants in this age group. Clinical Trial Registration: [ClinicalTrials.gov], identifier [NCT02653534].

Linear Growth Trajectories, Catch-up Growth, and Its Predictors Among North Indian Small-for-Gestational Age Low Birthweight Infants: A Secondary Data Analysis.

Background: Low birthweight small-for-gestational-age (SGA-LBW) (birthweight below the 10th percentile for gestational age; SGA-LBW) infants are at an increased risk of poor postnatal growth outcomes. Linear growth trajectories of SGA-LBW infants are less studied in South Asian settings including India. Objectives: To describe the linear growth trajectories of the SGA-LBW infants compared with appropriate-for-gestational-age LBW (AGA-LBW) infants during the first 6 months of life. In addition, we estimated catch-up growth (ΔLAZ > 0.67) in SGA-LBW infants and their performance against the WHO linear growth velocity cut-offs. Additionally, we studied factors associated with poor catch-up growth in SGA-LBW infants. Methods: The data utilized came from an individually randomized controlled trial that included low birthweight (LBW) infants weighing 1,500-2,250 g at birth. A total of 8,360 LBW infants were included. For comparison between SGA-LBW and AGA-LBW infants, we presented unadjusted and adjusted estimates for mean differences (MDs) or risk ratios (RRs) for the outcomes of length, linear growth velocity, length for age z-score (LAZ) score, and stunting. We estimated the proportion of catch-up growth. Generalized linear models of the Poisson family with log links were used to identify factors associated with poor catch-up growth in SGA-LBW infants. Results: Low birthweight small-for-gestational-age infants had a higher risk of stunting, lower attained length, and a lower LAZ score throughout the first 6 months of life compared with AGA-LBW infants, with differences being maximum at 28 days and minimum at 6 months of age. The linear growth velocity in SGA-LBW infants compared with AGA-LBW infants was significantly lower during the birth-28 day period [MD -0.19, 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.28 to -0.10] and higher during the 3- to 6-month period (MD 0.17, 95% CI: 0.06-0.28). Among the SGA-LBW infants, 55% showed catch-up growth for length at 6 months of age. Lower wealth quintiles, high birth order, home birth, male child, term delivery, non-exclusive breastfeeding, and pneumonia were associated with the higher risk of poor catch-up in linear growth among SGA-LBW infants. Conclusion: Small for gestational age (SGA) status at birth, independent of gestational age, is a determinant of poor postnatal linear growth. Promotion of institutional deliveries, exclusive breastfeeding, and prevention and early treatment of pneumonia may be helpful to improve linear growth in SGA-LBW infants during early infancy. Clinical Trial Registration: [https://clinicaltrials.gov/], identifier [NCT02653534].

Health equity impact of community-initiated kangaroo mother care: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Kangaroo mother care (KMC) can substantially enhance overall survival of low birthweight babies. In a large randomized controlled trial, we recently showed that supporting mothers to provide community initiated KMC (ciKMC) can reduce mortality among infants up to 180 days of life by 25% (hazard ratio (HR) 0.75). With the current analysis, we aimed to explore if ciKMC promotion leads to increased inequity in survival. METHODS: In the trial we randomized 8402 low birthweight babies to a ciKMC (4480 babies) and a control (3922 babies) arm, between 2015 and 2018 in Haryana, India. We estimated the difference in concentration indices, which measure inequality, between babies in the ciKMC and control arms for survival until 180 days of life. Further, we compared the effect of ciKMC promotion across subgroups defined by socioeconomic status, caste, maternal literacy, infant's sex, and religion. RESULTS: Our intervention did not increase survival inequity, as the concentration index in the ciKMC arm of the trial was 0.05 (95% CI -0.07 to 0.17) lower than in the control arm. Survival impact was higher among those belonging to the lower two wealth quintiles, those born to illiterate mothers and those belonging to religions other than Hindu. CONCLUSIONS: We found that ciKMC promotion did not increase inequity in survival associated with wealth. The beneficial impact of ciKMC tended to be larger among vulnerable groups. Supporting mothers to provide KMC at home to low birthweight babies will not increase and could indeed reduce inequities in infant survival. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02653534 . Registered January 12, 2016-Retrospectively registered.

Diagnostic measures for severe acute malnutrition in Indian infants under 6 months of age: a secondary data analysis.

BACKGROUND: Weight for length z-score (WLZ) < - 3 is currently used to define severe acute malnutrition (SAM) among infants. However, this approach has important limitations for infants younger than 6 months of age as WLZ cannot be calculated using WHO growth standards if infant length is < 45 cm. Moreover, length for age z-score (LAZ) and weight for length z-score (WLZ) are least reliable measures, with high chances of variation, and less chances of detecting undernutrition in under 6 months infants. The objective of the current analysis was to compare WLZ with WAZ and LAZ in a cohort of Indian infants in predicting the deaths between 6 weeks and 6 months of age. METHODS: The data was from an individually randomized trial conducted in slums of Delhi, India in which infants' weight and length were measured at 6 weeks of age (at the time of the first immunization visit). Vital status of the infants was documented from 6 weeks to 6 months of age. The sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and positive and negative likelihood ratios were calculated for WAZ < -3, WLZ < -3, and LAZ < -3 for deaths between 6 weeks and 6 months of age. The receiver operating characteristics curve was calculated for each of the above anthropometric indicators. RESULTS: For deaths occurring between 6 weeks to 6 months of age, the specificity ranged between 85.9-95.9% for all three anthropometric indicators. However, the sensitivity was considerably higher for WAZ; it was 64.6% for WAZ < -3, 39.1% for LAZ < -3, and 25.0% for WLZ < -3. WAZ < -3 had higher area under curve (0.75; 95% CI: 0.68, 0.82) and hence, better discriminated deaths between 6 weeks and 6 months of age than WLZ < -3. The adjusted relative risk (RR 10.6, 95% CI 5.9, 18.9) and the population attributable fraction (PAF 57.9, 95% CI 38.8, 71.0%) of mortality was highest for WAZ < -3. CONCLUSIONS: We found WAZ < -3 at 6 weeks of age to be a better predictor of death in the 6 weeks to 6 months of life in comparison to WLZ < -3 and LAZ < -3 and propose that it should be considered to diagnose SAM in this age group.

Growth faltering in early infancy: highlights from a two-day scientific consultation.

Faltering of growth in early life has been recognized as a public health challenge among Indian babies. A two-day consultation on growth faltering in early infancy was organized to examine the data and evidence on identification and management of early growth failure and to identify knowledge gaps and future areas of research. The consultation was supported by the Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), the Indian Academy of Pediatrics (Nutrition Chapter), Vardhman Mahavir Medical College and Safdarjung Hospital, and the Society for Applied Studies. It brought together researchers, clinicians, policy makers and program managers.

Factors associated with the decline in under-five diarrhea mortality in India: a LiST analysis.

BACKGROUND: India has achieved 86% reduction in the number of under-five diarrheal deaths from 1980 to 2015. Nonetheless diarrhea is still among the leading causes of under-five deaths. The aim of this analysis was to study the contribution of factors that led to decline in diarrheal deaths in the country and the effect of scaling up of intervention packages to address the remaining diarrheal deaths. METHODS: We assessed the attribution of different factors and intervention packages such as direct diarrhea case management interventions, nutritional factors and WASH interventions which contributed to diarrhea specific under-five mortality reduction (DSMR) during 1980 to 2015 using the Lives Saved Tool (LiST). The potential impact of scaling up different packages of interventions to achieve universal coverage levels by year 2030 on reducing the number of remaining diarrheal deaths were estimated. RESULTS: The major factors associated with DSMR reduction in under-fives during 1980 to 2015, were increase in ORS use, reduction in stunting prevalence, improved sanitation, changes in age appropriate breastfeeding practices, increase in the vitamin-A supplementation and persistent diarrhea treatment. ORS use and reduction in stunting were the two key interventions, each accounting for around 32% of the lives saved during this period. Scaling up the direct diarrhea case management interventions from the current coverage levels in 2015 to achieve universal coverage levels by 2030 can save around 82 000 additional lives. If the universal targets for nutritional factors and WASH interventions can be achieved, an additional 23 675 lives can potentially be saved. CONCLUSIONS: While it is crucial to improve the coverage and equity in ORS use, an integrated approach to promote nutrition, WASH and direct diarrhea interventions is likely to yield the highest impact on reducing the remaining diarrheal deaths in under-five children.

Utilisation, equity and determinants of full antenatal care in India: analysis from the National Family Health Survey 4.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the utilisation, equity and determinants of full antenatal care (ANC), defined as 4 or more antenatal visits, at least one tetanus toxoid (TT) injection and consumption of iron folic acid (IFA) for a minimum of 100 days, in India. METHODS: We analysed a sample of 190,898 women from India's National Family Health Survey 4. Concentration curves and concentration index were used to assess equity in full ANC utilisation. Multivariable logistic regression model was used to examine the factors associated with full ANC utilisation. RESULTS: In India, 21% of pregnant women utilised full ANC, ranging from 2.3-65.9% across states. Overall, 51.6% had 4 or more ANC visits, 30.8% consumed IFA for atleast 100 days, and 91.1% had one or more doses of tetanus toxoid. Full ANC utilisation was inequitable across place of residence, caste and maternal education. Registration of pregnancy, utilisation of government's Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and health insurance coverage were associated with higher odds of full ANC utilisation. Lower maternal education, lower wealth quintile(s), lack of father's participation during antenatal visits, higher birth order, teenage and unintended pregnancy were associated with lower odds of full ANC utilisation. CONCLUSIONS: Full ANC utilisation in India was inadequate and inequitable. Although half of the women did not receive the minimum recommended ANC visits, the utilisation of TT immunisation was almost universal. The positive association of full ANC with ICDS utilisation and child's father involvement may be leveraged for increasing the uptake of full ANC. Strategies to address the socio-demographic factors associated with low and inequitable utilisation of full ANC are imperative for strengthening India's maternal health program.

Severe wasting among Indian infants <6 months: Findings from the National Family Health Survey 4.

Burden and risk factors for wasting in the first 6 months of life among Indian children are not well documented. We used data from India's National Family Health Survey 4 to estimate the prevalence of severe wasting (weight for length < -3 SD) among 18,898 infants under 6 months of age. We also examined the association of severe wasting with household, maternal, and child-related factors using multivariable logistic regression analysis. Prevalence of severe wasting among infants less than 6 months of age was 14.8%, ranging from 3.5 to 21% across states. Low birth weight (<2,500 g; adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.40, 95% CI [1.19, 1.65]), nonutilization of supplementary nutrition by mother during lactation (AOR 1.23, 95% CI [1.05, 1.43]), and anthropometric assessment during summer (AOR 1.37, 95% CI [1.13, 1.65]) and monsoon months (AOR 1.53, 95% CI [1.20, 1.95]) were associated with higher odds of severe wasting. Infants aged 2 to 3 months (AOR 0.78, 95% CI [0.66, 0.93]) and 4 to 5 months (AOR 0.65, 95% CI [0.55, 0.73]) had lower odds of severe wasting as compared with the 0- to 1-month category. This analysis reveals a high burden of severe wasting in infants less than 6 months in India. Preventive interventions must be targeted at reducing low birth weight due to fatal growth restriction and prematurity. Appropriate care practices at facilities and postdischarge with extra attention to those born small and sick can prevent further deterioration in nutritional status.

Delayed vaccination and its predictors among children under 2 years in India: Insights from the national family health survey-4.

OBJECTIVE: Delayed vaccination increases the susceptibility window for vaccine preventable diseases. Our analysis estimates the proportion of children between 10 and 23 months of age with delayed vaccination in India and the associated socio-demographic, maternal and child related factors. METHODS: We used individual level data from the National Family and Health Survey 4, conducted in 2015-2016. The primary outcome of the study was delayed vaccination for BCG, DPT- 1st dose and Measles. Delayed vaccination for each vaccine was defined as administration of the vaccine dose after 28 days of the minimum recommended age, as per the national immunization schedule in India. We estimated the proportion of children with delayed vaccination for each vaccine and used multivariable logistic regression to explore associated factors. FINDINGS: In the current analysis, 23.1%, 29.3% and 34.8% of children aged 10 to 23 months had delayed vaccination for BCG, DPT-1st dose and Measles respectively. Children from Muslim families (aOR 1.36 for BCG; aOR 1.45 for DPT-1; aOR 1.26 for Measles); birth weight < 2000 g (aOR 2.33 for BCG; aOR 1.53 for DPT-1; aOR 1.36 for Measles) had higher odds of delayed vaccination. Lower maternal education and belonging to a family from lower wealth quintile had higher odds of delayed vaccination. Children of mothers who had tetanus toxoid immunization during pregnancy had lower odds of delayed vaccination (aOR 0.69 for BCG; aOR 0.76 for DPT-1; aOR 0.78 for Measles). CONCLUSION: The proportion of children with delayed vaccination is high in India. Vaccine timeliness should be a core indicator of the immunization program with greater focus on groups with higher chances of delayed vaccination i.e. home birth, low birth weight new-borns, poorer households, children of mothers with lower education and children from Muslim families.

Cognitive and motor outcomes in children born low birth weight: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies from South Asia.

BACKGROUND: South Asia contributes substantially to global low birth weight population (i.e. those with birth weight < 2500 g). Synthesized evidence is lacking on magnitude of cognitive and motor deficits in low birth weight (LBW) children compared to those with normal birth weight (NBW) (i.e. birth weight ≥ 2500 g). The meta-analysis aimed to generate this essential evidence. METHODS: Literature search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar. Original research articles from south Asia that compared cognitive and/or motor scores among LBW and NBW individuals were included. Weighted mean differences (WMD) and pooled relative risks (RR) were calculated. All analyses were done using STATA 14 software. RESULTS: Nineteen articles (n = 5999) were included in the analysis. Children < 10 years of age born LBW had lower cognitive (WMD -4.56; 95% CI: -6.38, - 2.74) and motor scores (WMD -4.16; 95% CI: -5.42, - 2.89) compared to children with NBW. Within LBW children, those with birth weight < 2000 g had much lower cognitive (WMD -7.23, 95% CI; - 9.20, - 5.26) and motor scores (WMD -6.45, 95% CI; - 9.64, - 3.27). CONCLUSIONS: In south Asia, children born LBW, especially with < 2000 g birth weight, have substantial cognitive and motor impairment compared to children with NBW. Early child development interventions should lay emphasis to children born LBW.