Evaluation of drug permeation under fed state conditions using mucus-covered Caco-2 cell epithelium.

The absence of a surface-lining mucus layer is a major pitfall for the Caco-2 epithelial model. However, this limitation can be alleviated by applying biosimilar mucus (BM) to the apical surface of the cell monolayer, thereby constructing a mucosa mimicking in vivo conditions. This study aims to elucidate the influence of BM as a barrier towards exogenic compounds such as permeation enhancers, and components of fed state simulated intestinal fluid (FeSSIF). Caco-2 cell monolayers surface-lined with BM were exposed to several compounds with distinct physicochemical properties, and the cell viability and permeability of the cell monolayer was compared to that of cell monolayers without BM and well-established mucus-secreting epithelial models (HT29-MTX-E12 cell monolayers and HT29-MTX-E12/Caco-2 cell co-culture monolayers). Exposure of BM-covered cells to constituents from FeSSIF revealed that it comprised a strong, hydrophilic barrier effect as 90% of BM-covered cells remained viable for >4 h, and the permeation rate of hydrophobic drugs was reduced. In contrast, the permeation rate of hydrophilic drugs was largely unaffected. Control monolayers displayed a loss of barrier function and <10% viable cells. The efficacy of fatty acid permeation enhancers were altered when investigated in BM-covered cells as compared to all the other studied epithelial models. Thus, Caco-2 cell monolayers surface-lined with BM constitute a valuable in vitro model that makes it possible to mimic intestinal fed state conditions when studying drug permeation.

The impact of particle preparation methods and polymorphic stability of lipid excipients on protein distribution in microparticles.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed at elucidating the influence of polymorphic stability of lipid excipients on the physicochemical characters of different solid lipid microparticles (SLM), with the focus on the alteration of protein distribution in SLM. METHODS: Labeled lysozyme was incorporated into SLM prepared with different excipients, i.e. trimyristin (TG14), glyceryl distearate (GDS), and glyceryl monostearate (GMS), by water-oil-water (w/o/w) or solid-oil-water (s/o/w) method. The distribution of lysozyme in SLM and the release of the protein from SLM were evaluated by confocal laser scanning microscopy. The storage stability of SLM was characterized by HPLC, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray powder diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy. RESULTS: Lysozyme was displayed as small scattered domains inside GDS and GMS SLM, whereas it was incorporated in the core of TG14 SLM formulated by the w/o/w method or evenly distributed in TG14 SLM prepared by the s/o/w method. Stability study at 37 °C revealed that only TG14 SLM made by the w/o/w method was able to maintain the lysozyme amount both on the particle surface and released from the SLM. Elevated storage temperature induced polymorphic transition of lipids in GDS and GMS SLM, which was, however, not remarkable for the TG14 SLM. CONCLUSIONS: Lipid excipients and particle preparation methods were found to differently affect the lysozyme distribution in SLM, owning to varied storage stabilities of the lipids. The present study provides updated knowledge for rational development of lipid-based formulations for oral delivery of peptide or protein drugs.

Investigation of protein distribution in solid lipid particles and its impact on protein release using coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy.

The aim of this study was to gain new insights into protein distribution in solid lipid microparticles (SLMs) and subsequent release mechanisms using a novel label-free chemical imaging method, coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy. Lysozyme-loaded SLMs were prepared using different lipids with lysozyme incorporated either as an aqueous solution or as a solid powder. Lysozyme distribution in SLMs was investigated using CARS microscopy with supportive structural analysis using electron microscopy. The release of lysozyme from SLMs was investigated in a medium simulating the conditions in the human duodenum. Both preparation method and lipid excipient affected the lysozyme distribution and release from SLMs. Lysozyme resided in a hollow core within the SLMs when incorporated as an aqueous solution. In contrast, lysozyme incorporated as a solid was embedded in clusters in the solid lipid matrix, which required full lipolysis of the entire matrix to release lysozyme completely. Therefore, SLMs with lysozyme incorporated in an aqueous solution released lysozyme much faster than with lysozyme incorporated as a solid. In conclusion, CARS microscopy was an efficient and non-destructive method for elucidating the distribution of lysozyme in SLMs. The interpretation of protein distribution and release during lipolysis enabled elucidation of protein release mechanisms. In future, CARS microscopy analysis could facilitate development of a wide range of protein-lipid matrices with tailor-made controlled release properties.

Solid lipid particles for oral delivery of peptide and protein drugs III - the effect of fed state conditions on the in vitro release and degradation of desmopressin.

The effect of food intake on the release and degradation of peptide drugs from solid lipid particles is unknown and was therefore investigated in vitro using different fed state media in a lipolysis model. Desmopressin was used as a model peptide and incorporated into solid lipid particles consisting of trimyristin (TG14), tripalmitin (TG16), and tristearin (TG18), respectively. Fasted state and fed state media with varying phospholipid and bile salt concentrations, as well as fed state media with milk and oleic acid glycerides, respectively, were used as the release media. The presence of oleic acid glycerides accelerated the release of desmopressin significantly from all solid lipid particles both in the presence and absence of lipase. The presence of oleic acid glycerides also reduced the degradation rate of desmopressin, probably due to the interactions between the lipids and the protease or desmopressin. Addition of a medium chain triglyceride, trilaurin, in combination with drug-loaded lipid particles diminished the food effect on the TG18 particles, and trilaurin is therefore proposed to be a suitable excipient for reduction of the food effect. Overall, the present study shows that strategies to reduce food effect, such as adding trilaurin, for lipid particle formulations should be considered as drug release from such formulations might be influenced by the presence of food in the gastrointestinal tract.