Characteristics and outcomes of interventions for pediatric laryngomalacia: A systematic review with meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze characteristics of children treated for laryngomalacia to determine predictive factors and provide an updated meta-analysis on outcomes. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines from inception to May 2, 2023, using CINAHL, PubMed, and Scopus databases. Study screening, data extraction, quality rating, and risk of bias assessment were performed by 2 independent reviewers. Data were meta-analyzed using fixed-/random-effects model to derive continuous measures (mean), proportions (%), and mean difference (Δ) with 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS: 100 articles were identified with information on outcomes of pediatric patients with laryngomalacia (N = 18,317). The mean age was 10.6 months (range: 0 to 252, 95%CI: 9.6 to 11.6, p = 0.00) with a 1.4:1 male to female ratio. Many patients presented with stridor (87.9%, 95% CI: 69.8 to 98.4), and the most common comorbidity at time of diagnosis was gastroesophageal reflux disease (48.8%, 95%CI: 40.9 to 56.8). Based on the patient population included in our analysis, 86.1% received supraglottoplasty (95% CI: 78.7 to 92.1). A total of 73.6% (95% CI: 65.5 to 81.0) had reported complete resolution of symptoms. For patients with a concurrent diagnosis of sleep disordered breathing receiving supraglottoplasty, the apnea-hypopnea index improved with a mean difference of -10.0 (95%CI: 15.6 to -4.5) events per hour post-treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Laryngomalacia continues to be a common problem in the pediatric population. Supraglottoplasty remains an effective treatment option leading to symptomatic improvement in many cases. For those with concurrent sleep disordered breathing, supraglottoplasty lowers the apnea-hypopnea index.

Does REM AHI Predict Persistent OSA After Pediatric Adenotonsillectomy?

OBJECTIVE: The utility of REM AHI in managing pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is not fully understood. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship of preoperative REM AHI to postoperative persistence of OSA in children who underwent adenotonsillectomy. METHODS: This retrospective chart review identified children under the age of 18 years that received an adenotonsillectomy for OSA and a preoperative and postoperative polysomnogram. Children with craniofacial or neuromuscular disorders or a tracheostomy were excluded. The primary outcome was the postoperative persistence of OSA, defined as a postoperative obstructive apnea-hypopnea index (oAHI) ≥ 1.5 events/hour. REM-predominant OSA was defined as a ratio of REM/NREM AHI ≥ 2. REM AHI minus NREM AHI and REM AHI minus oAHI helped to identify patients with a larger distribution of REM AHI. RESULTS: A total of 353 patients were included. Postoperative persistent OSA was seen in 232 (65.7%) children. The preoperative REM AHI, REM AHI minus NREM AHI, and REM AHI minus oAHI of children with persistent OSA did not differ significantly from children with resolution of OSA. Rates of persistence were not different between those with REM-predominant OSA and REM-independent OSA (63.8% vs 70.7%, P = .218). CONCLUSION: This study suggests that preoperative REM AHI may be a poor predictor of OSA persistence after adenotonsillectomy. Further study is needed to help characterize how pre-operative REM AHI should impact clinicians' decision making, family counseling and recommendations.

A scoping review of randomized clinical trials for pain management in pediatric tonsillectomy and adenotonsillectomy.

Objectives: To examine the volume, topics, and reporting trends in the published literature of randomized clinical trials for pharmacologic pain management of pediatric tonsillectomy and adenotonsillectomy and to identify areas requiring further research. Data Sources: PubMed (National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health), Scopus (Elsevier), CINAHL (EBSCO), and Cochrane Library (Wiley). Methods: A systematic search of four databases was conducted. Only randomized controlled or comparison trials examining pain improvement with a pharmacologic intervention in pediatric tonsillectomy or adenotonsillectomy were included. Data collected included demographics, pain-related outcomes, sedation scores, nausea/vomiting, postoperative bleeding, types of drug comparisons, modes of administration, timing of administration, and identities of the investigated drugs. Results: One hundred and eighty-nine studies were included for analysis. Most studies included validated pain scales, with the majority using visual-assisted scales (49.21%). Fewer studies examined pain beyond 24 h postoperation (24.87%), and few studies included a validated sedation scale (12.17%). Studies have compared several different dimensions of pharmacologic treatment, including different drugs, timing of administration, modes of administration, and dosages. Only 23 (12.17%) studies examined medications administered postoperatively, and only 29 (15.34%) studies examined oral medications. Acetaminophen only had four self-comparisons. Conclusion: Our work provides the first scoping review of pain and pediatric tonsillectomy. With drug safety profiles considered, the literature does not have enough data to determine which treatment regimen provides superior pain control in pediatric tonsillectomy. Even common drugs like acetaminophen and ibuprofen require further research for optimizing the treatment of posttonsillectomy pain. The heterogeneity in study design and comparisons weakens the conclusions of potential systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Future directions include more noninferiority studies of unique comparisons and more studies examining oral medications given postoperatively.

Portable Sleep Study Device Versus Polysomnography: A Meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an updated comparison of apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), oxygen desaturation index (ODI), respiratory disturbance index (RDI), oxygen saturation (O2 sat), and lowest oxyhemoglobin saturation (LSAT) measured by portable sleep study devices (PSSDs) compared to polysomnography (PSG). DATA SOURCES: Primary studies were identified through PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, and Cochrane. REVIEW METHODS: A systematic review was performed by searching databases from inception through August 2021. Only studies examining simultaneous monitoring of a PSSD and PSG were included.  Respiratory indices AHI, ODI, RDI, O2 sat, and LSAT was collected Meta-correlations and meta-regressions were conducted to compare sleep variable measurements between PSSD and PSG. RESULTS: A total of 24 studies (N = 1644 patients) were included. The mean age was 49.5 ± 12.0 (range = 13-92), mean body mass index (BMI) was 30.4 ± 5.7 (range = 17-87), and 69.4% were male. Meta-correlation showed significant associations between PSSD and PSG for AHI (n = 655, r = .888; p < .001), ODI (n = 241, r = .942; p < .001), RDI (n = 313, r = .832; p < .001), O2 sat (n = 171, r = .858; p < .001), and LSAT (n = 197, r = .930; p < .001). Meta-regressions indicated significant predictive correlations for AHI (n = 655; r = .96; p < .001), ODI (n = 740; r = .75; p = .031), RDI (n = 197; r = .99; p = .005), and LSAT (n = 197; r = .85; p = .030), but not for O2 sat (n = 171; r = .31; p = .692). CONCLUSIONS: Respiratory indices correlate strongly between PSSD and PSG, which is further supported by meta-regressions results. PSSD might be a valuable cost and time-saving OSA screening tool.

Sociodemographic Factors Affecting Loss to Follow-Up After Newborn Hearing Screening: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Universal newborn hearing screening (NBHS) has been widely implemented as a part of early hearing detection and intervention (EHDI) programs worldwide. Even with excellent provider knowledge and screening rates, many infants do not receive definitive hearing testing or intervention after initial screening. The objective of this study was to identify sociodemographic factors contributing to loss of follow-up. DATA SOURCES: PubMed, Scopus, and CINAHL. REVIEW METHODS: Per Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, the databases were searched from the date of inception through December 28, 2021. Studies containing sociodemographic information on patients who were referred to NBHS were included. Meta-analysis of odds ratios (ORs) was performed comparing rates of sociodemographic variables between patients adherent and nonadherent to follow-up. RESULTS: A total of 169,238 infants from 19 studies were included. Low birth weight (OR 1.6 [95% confidence interval, CI 1.2-2.2, p < .001), racial minority (OR 1.4 [95% CI 1.2-1.6], p < .001), rural residence (OR 1.5 [95% CI 1.1-1.9], p = .005), lack of insurance (OR 1 [95% CI 1.4-2.5], p < .001), and public or state insurance (OR 1.7 [95% CI 1.2-4.2], p = .008) were associated with missed follow-up after referred NBHS. Associated maternal factors included low maternal education (OR 1.8 [95% CI 1.6-2.0], p < .001), young maternal age (OR 1.5 [95% CI 1.5-1.6], p < .001), unmarried maternal status (OR 1.5 [95% CI 1.1-1.9], p = .003), and current or former maternal smoking status (OR 1.8 [95% CI 1.4-2.2], p < .001). CONCLUSION: Both infant and maternal sociodemographic factors influence follow-up compliance after referred NBHS. Focused efforts should be made by medical providers and policymakers to address these factors to ensure appropriate newborn hearing care and interventions are achieved.

Parental Presence at Induction of Anesthesia to Reduce Anxiety: A Systematic Research and Meta-Analysis.

PURPOSE: Perioperative anxiety can significantly alter outcomes for pediatric patients. Parental presence at induction of anesthesia (PPIA) is one method of anxiety reduction, but the efficacy remains unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine if PPIA affects child and caretaker perioperative anxiety levels. DESIGN: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis METHODS: This study followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A comprehensive literature search of PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Library databases was performed on June 29, 2021. Search terms were related to parental presence in the operating room, anesthesia or anesthesia induction, and pediatric patients. The literature search identified English-language studies comparing children receiving PPIA to controls or studies examining attitudes toward PPIA. FINDINGS: A total of 21 articles (n = 9573) met inclusion criteria. Seven studies (n = 776) quantified child anxiety with validated scales, and seven studies quantified parent anxiety (n = 621). There was no significant difference in preoperative anxiety between PPIA and controls for patients (P = .27) or caretakers (P = .99). PPIA patients had 8.40 [0.16, 16.64] (P = .05) lower Modified Yale Preoperative Anxiety Scale scores compared to control at induction, and parents had 3.41 [0.32, 6.50] (P = .03) lower State-Trait Anxiety Inventory State scores. Three studies concluded that PPIA did not increase operating room time or induction time. Twenty-three studies examined parental attitudes toward PPIA and found that 98.03% [96.09%, 99.32%] of parents present at induction would like to be present at subsequent surgeries. Contention in support for PPIA was seen amongst healthcare providers, but attitudes increasingly favored PPIA after implementation. CONCLUSIONS: PPIA reduces parental and patient anxiety, may increase parental satisfaction, and may not impede operating room efficiency. PPIA should be considered as a valuable tool to improve surgical outcomes and patient and family satisfaction.

Evaluating the management timeline of tracheoesophageal fistulas secondary to button batteries: A systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the incidence of pediatric button battery (BB) ingestions has risen. Children have spent more time at home from school, while many parents try to balance working from home and childcare. Additionally, the amount of electronics powered by BB has increased. Tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) secondary to a retained aerodigestive BB is a devastating development. Management is challenging, and the clinical timeline of watchful waiting versus surgical intervention for TEF is poorly defined in the literature. METHODS: In accordance with PRISMA guidelines, databases searched include PubMed, Scopus, and CINAHL from database date of inception through August 13, 2021. All study designs were included, and no language, publication date, or other restrictions were applied. Case series and reports of TEFs secondary to BBs were included. Clinical risk factors and outcomes were compared between the spontaneous closure and surgical repair groups. RESULTS: A total of 79 studies with 105 total patients were included. Mortality was 11.4%. There were 23 (21.9%) TEFs that spontaneously closed and 71 (67.6%) that underwent surgical repair. Median time to spontaneous closure compared to surgical repair was significantly different (8.0 weeks [IQR 4.0-18.4] vs. 2.0 weeks [IQR 0.1-3.3], p<0.001). Smaller TEFs were more likely to spontaneously close versus being surgically repaired (9.3 mm ± 3.5 vs. 14.9 mm ± 8.3, p=0.022). Duration of symptoms before BB discovery, BB size, time between BB removal and TEF discovery, and location of the TEF were not statistically different between the spontaneous closure and surgical repair groups. CONCLUSION: A TEF secondary to BB ingestion is a potentially deadly complication. Timing of reported TEF spontaneous closure varies significantly. While smaller TEFs may be amenable to healing without surgical repair, no other significant factors were identified that may be associated with spontaneous closure. If clinical status permits, these data suggest a period of observation of at least 8 weeks prior to surgical intervention may be practical for many BB-induced TEFs.

A National Analysis of Inpatient Pediatric Adenoidectomy.

OBJECTIVE: Hospital admission following pediatric adenoidectomy without tonsillectomy is not well characterized. The objective of our study is to better characterize risk factors for post-operative complications in younger children undergoing inpatient adenoidectomy. METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis using data derived from the Kid's Inpatient Database (KID) was performed. Study participants included children <3 years of age who underwent an adenoidectomy and were admitted to hospitals participating in the KID for years 1997, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2009, and 2012. Descriptive statistical analysis and a multivariate logistic regression analysis were performed to identify risk factors for post-operative complication. RESULTS: A total of 3406 children (mean age 1.1 ± 0.7 years) were included. The overall post-operative bleeding and respiratory complication rates were 0.6% and 5.4%, respectively. Children less than 18 months of age demonstrated increased rates of post-operative respiratory complications (P = .009), but not bleeding complications (P = .857). Presence of cardiopulmonary congenital malformations (OR 1.54, 95% CI 1.07-2.20), chronic respiratory disease of the newborn (OR 5.03, 95% CI 2.86-8.85), and neuromuscular disorders (OR 1.97, 95% CI 1.09-3.57) were associated with post-operative respiratory distress. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of a national dataset suggests that otherwise healthy children less than 18 months of age and children 18 months to 3 years of age with certain comorbidities may benefit from overnight observation following adenoidectomy.

Tracheostomy protocols during COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the implementation of rapidly changing protocols and guidelines related to the indications and perioperative precautions and protocols for tracheostomy. The purpose of this study was to evaluate current guidelines for tracheostomy during the COVID-19 pandemic to provide a framework for health systems to prepare as the science evolves over the upcoming months and years. METHODS: Literature review was performed. Articles reporting clinical practice guidelines for tracheostomy in the context of COVID-19 were included. RESULTS: A total of 13 tracheotomy guidelines were identified. Two were available via PubMed, five in society or organization websites, and six identified via health system websites or other sources. Five were from Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery specialties, six from Anesthesiology and one from Pulmonary/Critical Care. All (100%) studies recommended postponing elective OR cases in COVID-19 positive patients, while seven recommended reducing team members to only essential staff and three recommended forming a designated tracheostomy team. Recommendations with supporting references are summarized in the article. CONCLUSIONS: Tracheostomy guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic vary by physician groups and specialty, hospital systems, and supply-chain/resource availability. This summary is provided as a point-in-time current state of the guidelines for tracheotomy management in April 2020 and is expected to change in coming weeks and months as the COVID-19 pandemic, virus testing and antibody testing evolves.

Insurance type impacts bronchoscopy for foreign body aspiration: An analysis of the Kids' Inpatient Database.

OBJECTIVES: To ascertain whether insurance type is associated with postoperative adverse effects and hospital length of stay for inpatient airway foreign body removal. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of children <18 years of age that underwent inpatient bronchoscopy with removal of airway foreign body in the national Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Kid's Inpatient Database (KID). Postoperative outcomes and length of stay were analyzed for racial disparities and insurance type using multivariable logistic regression and negative binomial regression. Models adjusted for race, insurance type, sex, age, and presence of pulmonary risk factors. RESULTS: A total of 5,850 children underwent bronchoscopy for foreign body removal. The median age was 2 (IQR: 4-1) years and 61.6% patients were male. Payer status included Medicaid (38.9%), private insurance (51.5%), self-pay (4.3%) and other (9.6%). The Medicaid cohort had a higher proportion of black (19.1%) and Hispanic patients (34.5%) (P < 0.001). Children covered under Medicaid had higher odds of postoperative complications (odds ratio [OR] 1.216; P = 0.031) and a greater length of stay (OR 1.533; P < 0.001) relative to the private insurance group when adjusting for sex, age, race and presence of pulmonary risk factors. The odds of having a greater length of stay was 33% higher for black (P < 0.001) and 37% higher for Hispanic (P < 0.001) children compared to white children. The average adjusted LOS under Medicaid was 8.37 days compared to 5.46 days for privately insured children. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that a difference in postoperative complications and LOS exist between public and privately insured children for foreign body removal via bronchoscopy. Further studies are warranted to investigate factors that drive these disparities.

Capturing infant swallow impairment on videofluoroscopy: timing matters.

BACKGROUND: Infant videofluoroscopic swallow studies (VFSSs) require clinicians to make determinations about swallowing deficits based on a limited number of fluoroscopically observed swallows. Although airway protection is known to decline throughout a bottle-feed, the paucity of data regarding the timing of this degradation has limited the development of procedural protocols that maximize diagnostic validity. OBJECTIVE: We tested the stability of key components of swallow physiology and airway protection at four standardized timepoints throughout the VFSS. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty bottle-fed infants with clinical signs of swallow dysfunction underwent VFSS. Fluoroscopy was turned on to allow visualization of five swallows at 0:00, 0:30, 1:30 and 2:30 (minutes:seconds [min:s]). We evaluated swallows for components of swallow physiology (oral bolus hold, initiation of pharyngeal swallow, timing of swallow initiation) and airway protection (penetration, aspiration). We used model-based linear contrasts to test differences in the percentage of swallows with low function component attributes. RESULTS: All components of swallow physiology exhibited a change throughout the VFSS (P≤0.0005). Changes were characterized by an increase in the number of sucks per swallow (P<0.0001), percentage of swallows with incomplete bolus hold (P=0.0005), delayed initiation of pharyngeal swallow (P<0.0001), delayed timing of swallow initiation (P=0.0004) and bolus airway entry (P<0.0001). These findings demonstrate that infants with dysphagia exhibit a change in swallow physiology throughout the videofluoroscopic swallow exam. CONCLUSION: Fluoroscopic visualization that is confined to the initial swallows of the bottle feed limit the exam's diagnostic validity. Developing evidence-based procedural guidelines for infant VFSS execution is crucial for maximizing the exam's diagnostic and treatment yield.

Are demographics associated with mucoepidermoid or acinic cell carcinoma parotid malignancies in children?

OBJECTIVE: To identify possible associations between patient demographics and parotid cancer histological type in pediatric patients. METHODS: Pediatric patients (ages: birth-18.0 years) in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database were included from 1973 to 2014 based on a diagnosis of mucoepidermoid carcinoma or acinic cell carcinoma of the parotid gland using the ICD O-3 codes of C07.9 and 8430 or 8550. Patients were classified into the following cohorts: <14 and 14-18 years of age based on the mean age at diagnosis. RESULTS: Three hundred and three pediatric patients were diagnosed with mucoepidermoid carcinoma or acinic cell carcinoma of the parotid gland within the SEER 18 registries. Female pediatric patients 14-18 years of age were 7.68 times more likely to have an acinic cell carcinoma (adjusted OR: 7.68 [95% CI: 2.01-29.44]). When stratified by histological type, 58.9% of female pediatric patients ≥14 years of age had an acinic cell carcinoma as compared to 37.3% of male pediatric patients ≥14 years of age, 36.5% of female pediatric patients <14 years of age, and 34.0% of male pediatric patients <14 years of age (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Based on this study, pediatric female patients between the ages of 14 and 18 years are the most likely cohort to have acinic cell carcinoma. The results of this study may assist providers during the work up of a pediatric patient with a suspected parotid malignancy.

Audiometric assessment of pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to evaluate hearing impairment in pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). METHODS: This is a retrospective analysis of the AudGen database generated by Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. Audiograms were analyzed for type of hearing loss (HL), pure-tone-average (PTA), laterality, and change in hearing over time. Medical charts were reviewed to identify factors that influence development and progression of hearing loss. RESULTS: 217 patients with CF were included in this study. 69 (31.8%) had hearing loss on initial audiogram. Chronic otitis media (OR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.3-4.5, p<0.01), Eustachian tube dysfunction (OR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.4-5.4, p<0.01), and otorrhea (OR: 6.3, 95% CI: 1.6-24.7, p<0.01) were positive predictors of HL. Children with a diagnosis of diabetes had more decline in hearing over time than those without diabetes (12.4±17.2dB worsening vs. -5.7±9.8dB improvement in PTA, p=0.014). CONCLUSION: This is the largest comprehensive analysis of all types of hearing loss in pediatric patients with CF. Our data suggest that children with more severe sinus disease may be at lower risk for inflammatory middle ear disease and subsequent hearing loss. Patients who develop complications of CF such as diabetes should be monitored frequently, and the use of ototoxic drugs should be limited if possible.

Unilateral cochlear nerve deficiency in children.

OBJECTIVE: Cochlear nerve deficiency (CND) is increasingly diagnosed in children with sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). We sought to determine the prevalence of CND, its imaging characteristics, and correlations with audiologic phenotype in children with unilateral SNHL. DESIGN: Case series with chart review. SETTING: Tertiary pediatric hospital. SUBJECTS/METHODS: In 128 consecutive children with unilateral SNHL who underwent high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging, the diameters, area, and signal intensity of the cochlear nerve (CN) were measured and normalized to the ipsilateral facial nerve. Presence of CND was determined by comparison to normative data. Relationships among hearing loss severity, progression, and nerve size were investigated. RESULTS: Cochlear nerve deficiency was present in 26% of children with unilateral SNHL. Its prevalence was higher (48%) in severe to profound SNHL, especially when in infants (100%). Width of the bony cochlear nerve canal (BCNC) correlated strongly with relative CN diameter, density, and area (R = 0.5); furthermore, a narrow BCNC (<1.7 mm) strongly predicted CND. Severity of hearing loss modestly correlated with nerve size, although significant variability was observed. Progression never occurred unless there were other inner ear malformations, whereas in the non-CND group, it occurred in 22%. Ophthalmologic abnormalities were very common (67%) in CND children, particularly oculomotor disturbances. CONCLUSION: Cochlear nerve deficiency is a common cause of unilateral SNHL, particularly in congenital unilateral deafness. Width of the BCNC effectively predicts CND, a finding useful when only computed tomography imaging is available. In an ear with CND, hearing can be expected to remain stable over time. Diagnosis should prompt evaluation by an ophthalmologist.

Photodynamic therapy in the management of pre-malignant head and neck mucosal dysplasia and microinvasive carcinoma.

The management of head and neck mucosal dysplasia and microinvasive carcinoma is an appealing strategy to prevent the development of invasive carcinomas. While surgery remains the standard of care, photodynamic therapy (PDT) offers several advantages including the ability to provide superficial yet wide field mucosal ablative treatment. This is particularly attractive where defining the extent of the dysplasia can be difficult. PDT can also retreat the mucosa without any cumulative fibrotic complications affecting function. To date, clinical experience suggests that this treatment approach can be effective in obtaining a complete response for the treated lesion but long term follow-up is limited. Further research efforts are needed to define not only the risk of malignant transformation with PDT but also to develop site specific treatment recommendations that include the fluence, fluence rate and light delivery technique.

Trypanosoma brucei AMP-activated kinase subunit homologs influence surface molecule expression.

The African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, can gauge its environment by sensing nutrient availability. For example, procyclic form (PF) trypanosomes monitor changes in glucose levels to regulate surface molecule expression, which is important for survival in the tsetse fly vector. The molecular connection between glycolysis and surface molecule expression is unknown. Here we partially characterize T. brucei homologs of the beta and gamma subunits of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and determine their roles in regulating surface molecule expression. Using flow cytometry and mass spectrometry, we found that TbAMPKbeta or TbAMPKgamma-deficient parasites express both of the major surface molecules, EP- and GPEET-procyclin, with the latter being a form that is expressed when glucose is low such as in the tsetse fly. Last, we have found that the putative scaffold component of the complex, TbAMPKbeta, fractionates with organellar components and colocalizes in part with a glycosomal marker as well as the flagellum of PF parasites.