Identifying and understanding barriers to optimal complementary feeding in Kenya.

Optimal complementary feeding between the ages of 6 and 23 months provides children with the required range of nutritious and safe foods while continuing to be breastfed to meet their needs for essential nutrients and develop their full physical and cognitive potential. The rates of exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life have increased from 32% in 2008 to 60% in 2022 in Kenya. However, the proportion of children between 6 and 23 months receiving a minimum acceptable diet remains low and has declined from 39% in 2008 to 31% in 2023. The Kenyan Ministry of Health, GAIN and UNICEF collaborated to understand the drivers of complementary feeding practices, particularly proximal determinants, which can be directly addressed and acted upon. A secondary analysis of household surveys and food composition data was conducted to outline children's dietary patterns within the different regions of Kenya and the extent to which the affordability of animal-source foods could be improved. Ethnographic data were analyzed to identify socio-cultural barriers to optimal complementary feeding. Furthermore, we outlined the critical steps for developing user-friendly and low-cost complementary feeding recipes. The results of all the analyses are presented in five of the six papers of this Special Issue with this additional paper introducing the Kenyan context and some of the critical findings. The Special Issue has highlighted multidimensional barriers surrounding the use and availability of animal-source foods. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for a multi-sectoral approach in enacting policies and programmes that address these barriers.

Modelling policies to improve affordability and consumption of nutritious foods for complementary feeding in Kenya.

In Kenya 26% of children under age 5 experience stunted growth, 4% are wasted and 11% are underweight. In pregnant women, the prevalence of iron deficiency is 36% and iron-deficiency anaemia prevalence is 26%. Previous studies have identified affordability as a key barrier to the intake of nutrients, particularly from animal-source foods (ASFs). Thus, this study analyzes to what extent the affordability of ASF in Kenya can be improved. It focuses on four ASFs: eggs, milk, chicken and beef. Using a computable general equilibrium model, three policy simulations were undertaken to establish the impact of potential changes on nutritious ASF availability and affordability: a 20% increase in total factor productivity (TFP) for the four products; a 20% TFP increase plus a 25% reduction in trade and transportation margins; and a 20% TFP increase for ASF and maize (a key input in animal feed). Simulations suggest increasing the productivity of the four ASF products would increase their availability and lower consumer prices (up to 17% lower). Household consumption of the four commodities would increase, resulting in improved household dietary diversity. Rural households would gain more compared with urban households. Poor households (the lowest 40%) would register larger welfare (Equivalent Variation) gains than other households in both urban and rural areas. The richest 20% of the population would neither lose nor gain following the policy changes. Reducing transportation costs and trade margins and increasing maize productivity could further reduce the price of ASFs through lower production costs and increased consumption.

Improving complementary feeding practices, programs and policies for optimal early childhood nutrition in Kenya: What would work?

Complementary feeding practices are greatly influenced by local contexts. Therefore, national home-grown evidence, policies and guidelines are critical to improving infant and young children's diets. This Special Issue has provided a comprehensive, evidence-based analysis of the situation, gaps and context-specific opportunities for improving young children's diets in Kenya. The primary research findings of the Special Issue supported the identification of a set of recommendations articulated across the four systems (food, health, water, sanitation and hygiene [WASH] and social protection) to improve food availability and accessibility in Kenya at the national and subnational levels. It is anticipated that the decentralised government functions seen in Kenya provide a strong opportunity to develop and mainstream context-specific recommendations into action. This Special Issue recommends adopting a multi-sectoral systems approach, including a shared vision, joint planning, implementation and monitoring, towards improving young children's diets with a focus on service delivery as well as scaled-up community social behaviour change interventions. In particular, the approach should entail advocacy for policy revisions for service delivery that support complementary feeding and development of costed implementation strategies in support of the same, across four critical systems-food, health, WASH and social protection, along with, the strengthening of national coordination, monitoring and accountability structures as per the Kenya Nutrition Action Plan. Finally, the development of a legal framework for enhanced accountability from all relevant sectors towards sustainable, nutritious, safe and affordable children's diets. These recommendations provide a clear direction in addressing the complementary feeding challenges, which the primary research of this Special Issue has presented.

Dietary intake and associated risk factors among pregnant women in Mbeya, Tanzania.

Poor dietary intake among pregnant women has serious detrimental consequences for pregnancy and offspring both in developed and developing countries. This study aimed to assess dietary intake and associated risk factors among pregnant women. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Mbeya, Tanzania with a sample size of 420 pregnant women attending antenatal clinics to assess the factors associated with dietary intake. Dietary intake was assessed using a piloted questionnaire of the Prime Diet Quality Score. A tested standard questionnaire was also used to collect factors that are associated with dietary intake among pregnant women. The strengths of the associations between the dependent and independent variables were tested using the Pearson chi-square tests and the multivariate log-binomial regression method was performed to calculate the adjusted risk ratios (ARR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). The study revealed that out of 420 pregnant women who participated in this study only 12.6% and 29.3% consumed at least four servings of fruits and vegetables per week respectively. Poor dietary intakes were less likely among cohabiting pregnant women [Adjusted RR 0.22 (95% CI 0.09-0.50)] and; those who reported taking Fansidar tablets during the pregnancy [Adjusted RR 0.55 (95% CI 0.31-0.96)]. Further, we found that poor dietary intakes were more likely among pregnant women who were classified as overweight and obesity by the MUAC above 33cm [Adjusted RR 3.49 (95% CI 1.10-11.06)]. The study results affirm that cohabitation and obesity affect dietary intakes among pregnant women differently compared to married women in rural settings of Tanzania. Further research is needed to investigate the social aspects that link dietary intake outcomes for developing a tailored gestational intervention to improve maternal and birth outcomes in sub-Saharan African countries.

Healthcare-seeking behaviours among mother's having under-five children with severe wasting in Dodoma and Mbeya regions of Tanzania-A qualitative study.

Maternal healthcare-seeking behaviour affects the health and well-being of under-five children. Drawing from the concepts of the health belief model, this study seeks to understand the determinants of health-seeking behaviours among mothers or caregivers of under-five-year-old children having severe wasting in Tanzania. A qualitative study employing the ethnography method conducted 32 semi-structured and narrative interviews with healthcare workers, community health workers, traditional healers, religious and village leaders, and mothers or caregivers of children who had acute malnutrition. The analysis of transcripts was done by qualitative content analysis. Further, the thematic analysis was carried out by assigning data into relevant codes to generate categories based on study objectives. Severe wasting among under-five-year-old children was not observed as a serious disease by the majority of mothers or caregivers. The study established that the health systems parameters such as the availability of the community health workers or healthcare providers and the availability of medicines and supplies to the health facility impact on mothers' or caregivers' healthcare-seeking behaviours. The findings also show that long distances to the health facility, behavioural parameters such as lack of awareness, negative perception of the management of severe wasting at the health facility, superstitious beliefs, women's workload, household food insecurity, and gender issues have a significant role in seeking healthcare. The results reaffirm how a programme on integrated management of severe wasting in Tanzania should encompass sociocultural factors that negatively influence mothers or caregivers of children with acute malnutrition. The programme should focus on engaging community structures including traditional healers, religious and village leaders to address prevailing local beliefs and sociocultural factors.

Evidence-based complementary feeding recipe book for Kenyan caregivers: A novel approach.

The Kenyan Ministry of Health (MOH) and a consortium of nutritionists, researchers and communication, and design specialists developed a novel approach to create an evidence-based recipe book promoting complementary feeding (CF) in Kenya. The ADAPT approach includes five steps: applied research (A), dialogue with stakeholders (D), adapted behaviour change communication (BCC) theories (A), purpose-driven visual communication (P), and tailoring to priority audiences (T). Through this approach, the recipe book addresses key knowledge gaps using behaviour change theories and visual communication best practice to increase accessibility, acceptability, retention and motivation for behaviour change. The book addresses barriers to CF identified through formative applied research. Dialogue with stakeholders helped ensure cultural appropriateness and the book's alignment with MOH recommendations and key messages. The book uses behaviour change theories to approach the reader in a respectful way that motivates behaviour change. The use of consistent, purpose-driven visuals helps ensure key messages are easily understood and accessible to all caregivers regardless of literacy level. The book's tone and content are tailored to its audiences' attributes, needs and preferences. This five-step process inspired the development of ADAPT, a novel approach that integrates behaviour change and visual communication for greater impact. This paper outlines how the consortium used the ADAPT approach to develop an evidence-based book that thoughtfully and holistically addresses a wide range of barriers, provides practical solutions and increases self-efficacy around CF. It offers a blueprint for public health practitioners from any field who are interested in using visual behaviour change communication to promote healthy behaviour.

Potential effectiveness of integrating human milk banking and lactation support on neonatal outcomes at Pumwani Maternity Hospital, Kenya.

We assessed the potential effectiveness of human milk banking and lactation support on provision of human milk to neonates admitted in the newborn unit (NBU) at Pumwani Maternity Hospital, Kenya. This pre-post intervention study collected data from mothers/caregivers and their vulnerable neonates or term babies who lacked sufficient mother's milk for several reasons admitted in the NBU. The intervention included establishing a human milk bank and strengthening lactation support. Preintervention data were collected between 5 October 2018 and 11 November 2018, whereas postintervention data were collected between 4 September 2019 and 6 October 2019. Propensity score-matched analysis was performed to assess the effect of the intervention on exclusive use of human milk, use of human milk as the first feed, feeding intolerance and duration of NBU stay. The surveys included 123 and 116 newborns at preintervention and postintervention, respectively, with 160 newborns (80 in each group) being included in propensity score matched analysis. The proportion of neonates who exclusively used human milk during NBU stay increased from 41.3% preintervention to 63.8% postintervention (adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 2.68; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.31, 5.53) and those whose first feed was human milk increased from 55.0% preintervention to 83.3% postintervention (adjusted OR: 5.09; 95% CI: 2.18, 11.88). The mean duration of NBU stay was 27% (95% CI: 5.8%, 44.0%) lower in the postintervention group than in the preintervention group. The intervention did not affect feeding intolerance. Integrating human milk banking and lactation support may improve exclusive use of human milk among vulnerable neonates in a resource limited setting.

The prevalence and risk factors associated with Iron, vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies in pregnant women: A cross-sectional study in Mbeya, Tanzania.

Maternal nutrition is an important forecaster of infant's and mother's health status in most developing countries. This study aimed at assessing the prevalence and associated risk factors of iron, vitamin B12, and folate deficiencies among pregnant women in Mbeya Tanzania. A cross-sectional study using a cluster randomized sampling was conducted among 420 pregnant women. A structured questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic and dietary assessment. Body iron store was assessed using serum ferritin measured by immunoturbidimetric assays using a Roche Cobas 400+ biochemistry analyzer. Serum folate was measured by folate microbiological assay, while serum vitamin B12 was measured by immunochemiluminescence assay using a Roche Cobas e411 immunoassay analyzer. Multivariate analysis was performed using Poisson regression. The prevalence of iron, folate, and vitamin B12 deficiencies among pregnant women in Mbeya was 37.8%, 24.0%, and 9.7% respectively. Higher odds of iron deficiency were seen in pregnant women aged 20-24 years older [Adjusted OR = 1.20 (95%CI 1.03, 1.35)], not employed [Adjusted OR = 3.0(95%CI 1.03-1.77)] and, not received iron/folic acid supplementation [Adjusted OR = 1.11 (95%CI 1.003-1.23)]. Pregnant women with highest and middle socio-economic statuses had lower odds of vitamin B12 deficiency [Adjusted OR = 0.83 (95%CI 0.76-0.92)] and [Adjusted OR = 0.89 (95%CI 0.81-0.98)] respectively. Pregnant women who were not employed, not received iron and folic acid supplement during pregnancy and, not consumed edible vegetable cooking oil had significant higher odds of serum folate deficiency [Adjusted OR = 3.0 (95%CI 1.58-5.68)], [Adjusted OR = 1.53 (95%CI 1.21-1.93)] and, [Adjusted OR = 2.77 (1.03-7.44)] respectively. This study confirms that iron, folate and vitamin B12 deficiencies are still a major challenge among pregnant women in Tanzania. We recommend for public health interventions for the provision of vitamin B12 along with iron and folic acid supplementations, especially in pregnant women belong to low socio-economic status and limited knowledge of healthy diet.

How COVID-19 affected food systems, health service delivery and maternal and infant nutrition practices: Implications for moving forward in Kenya.

This implementation research study sought to examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on maternal and infant nutrition practices, and related aspects of health and food systems in Nairobi and Uasin Gishu Counties, Kenya. The study triangulated in-depth interviews with 16 pregnant women, 31 lactating women (including COVID-19 positive), 10 facility health workers, 10 community health volunteers, 6 focus group discussions (FGDs) with food vendors, 4 FGDs and 15 stakeholder interviews with government and implementing partners. Trends from Kenyan Health Information System indicators (i.e., exclusive breastfeeding and initiation of breastfeeding, antenatal care) were also examined. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a decline in attendance of antenatal care, and maternity facilities was observed, and corroborated by Kenyan Health Information System data. Lack of clarity among health workers on COVID-19 breastfeeding guidance and fear of COVID-19 infection early in the pandemic were key drivers of early infant formula use, mother-child separation following delivery and delayed initiation of breastfeeding. Most women exclusively breastfed due to Government of Kenya restrictions in movement. Unemployment and job loss was linked to food insecurity and worsened by increased food prices and limited social protection measures. In response, pregnant and lactating women resorted to skipping meals and reducing quantity and variety of foods consumed. Efforts to build forward from COVID-19 in Kenya should include facility and community health education to prevent disruptions in breastfeeding and to support maternal dietary intake, and in the provision of targeted social protection measures alongside other multisectoral interventions (i.e., psychosocial support) for Kenyan pregnant and lactating women.

Diets of infants and young children in two counties of Kenya: Key drivers and barriers to improvement.

Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices are influenced by many context-specific factors related to local food systems as well as social and cultural practices. Understanding these local contextual perspectives is essential for designing effective programs and policies. This paper uses focused ethnographic study methods to examine challenges experienced by mothers related to IYCF in two counties in Kenya, a country with considerable heterogeneity in agriculture, food systems, and cultures. A two-phase qualitative study was undertaken in each of Kilifi County and West Pokot County, entailing interviews and rating activities with mothers, health workers, and vendors. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, translated into English, coded, and analysed by topic. Results show low levels of dietary diversity in both counties; in West Pokot, the level of adequate meal frequency is also low. Core foods in young child diets included maize porridge and family foods such as ugali (stiff maize porridge), vegetables, beans, fish, and plantains. Food safety, acceptability, and acquisition ease were the main drivers of food choice. Mothers generally felt that all core foods fed to young children are healthy and safe, but there was more variability regarding child acceptance, acquisition ease, cost, and convenience. Common barriers to feeding nutrient-dense foods to children included child illness, economic constraints, and limited knowledge of modification strategies, skills, or tools to make the foods suitable for young children. Potential actions to address these barriers include sharing information on child-appropriate recipes; raising awareness on local, affordable nutrient-dense foods; and improving WASH practices to reduce illness frequency.

Mid-term evaluation of Maternal and Child Nutrition Programme (MCNP II) in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Kenya is faced with a triple burden of malnutrition which is multi-faceted with health and socio-economic implications. Huge geographical disparities exist, especially, in the arid and semi-arid lands exacerbated by inadequate resource allocation to the nutrition sector and challenges in multi-sectoral coordination and nutrition governance. UNICEF's Maternal and Child Nutrition Programme is a four-year (2018-2022) resilience-building, multi-sectoral program focused on pregnant and lactating women, mothers of children under five years and children under five years. The objective of the mid-term evaluation was to establish the relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability of the programme. METHODS: The field evaluation conducted between June and July 2021, adopted a concurrent mixed-methods approach, where qualitative information was gathered through 29 key informant interviews and 18 focus group discussions (6 FGDs per population group; women of reproductive age, adolescent girls and men). Quantitatively, data were obtained through desk review of secondary data from programme reports, budgets, and project outputs where descriptive analysis was undertaken using Excel software. Qualitative information was organized using Nvivo software and analyzed thematically. RESULTS: The findings provide evidence of the relevance of the Maternal and Child Nutrition Programme II to the nutrition situation in Kenya and its alignment with the Government of Kenya and donor priorities. Most planned programme targets were achieved despite operating in a COVID-19 pandemic environment. The use of innovative approaches such as family mid-upper arm circumference, integrated management of acute malnutrition surge model, Malezi bora and Logistic Management Information Management System contributed to the realization of effective outputs and outcomes. Stringent financial management strategies contributed toward programme efficiencies; however, optimal utilization of the resources needs further strengthening. The programme adopted strategies for strengthening local capacity and promoting ownership and long-term sustainability. CONCLUSION: The programme is on track across the four evaluation criteria. However, a few suggestions are recommended to improve relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability. A formal transition strategy needs to be developed in consultation with multi-stakeholder groups and implemented in phases. UNICEF Nutrition section should explore a more integrated  programming mode of delivery through joint initiatives with other agencies under the Delivery as One UN agenda, along the more gender transformative approaches with more systematic involvement of males and females in gender-based discussions.

A subnational affordability assessment of nutritious foods for complementary feeding in Kenya.

Complementary feeding among children aged 6-23 months is a key determinant of micronutrient deficiencies and childhood stunting, the burdens of which remain high in Kenya. This study examines the affordability of complementary foods to increase young children's nutrient consumption across eight provinces in Kenya. We combined data from household surveys, food composition tables and published sources to estimate the cost of portion sizes that could meet half of the children's daily iron, vitamin A, calcium, zinc, folate, vitamin B12 and protein requirements from complementary feeding. These costs were compared to current household food expenditures. The selection of foods and price and expenditure data were stratified by province. Our analysis indicates that vitamin A, vitamin B12 and folate are affordable to most households in Kenya via liver, beans and in some provinces, orange-fleshed fruits and vegetables, avocado and small dried fish. Calcium, animal-source protein, zinc and iron were less affordable and there was more provincial variation. In some provinces, small dried fish were an affordable source of calcium, protein and zinc. In others (North Eastern, Central, Eastern, parts of Rift Valley and Coast), small dried fish were not commonly consumed and other foods were less affordable. Future research should consider interventions aimed at reducing prices, increasing availability and changing behaviours related to these foods. Solutions such as supplementation and fortification may be needed for iron and zinc in some locations. Food affordability presented the greatest barriers in North Eastern province, which had lower dietary diversity and may require additional targeted interventions.

Building forward better-An exploration of nutrition practices, food choice, and coping behaviors among Kenyan adolescents during COVID-19: Experiences and program implications.

This implementation research study sought to examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescent nutrition practices and related behaviors in Nairobi and Uasin Gishu Counties, Kenya. Eight focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with adolescents 10-19 years of age, in-depth interviews with 10 health facility providers, and a combination of FGDs (n-4) and key informant interviews with government stakeholder and implementing partners (n = 9). During the pandemic, adolescents tended to avoid commonly consumed junk foods, in favor of "immune boosting, protective" foods. Widespread unemployment and reductions in parental income rendered some food items such as meat, eggs, and fruits unaffordable for families of adolescents. Adolescents relayed experiences of skipping meals and reducing the amount and variety of foods consumed. Adolescents also described employing strategies such as working in the informal sector and selling personal items to support families financially, in response to rising food insecurity. School closures mandated during the pandemic likely contributed to reductions in overall physical activity. To improve the diets of adolescents, programs should build on the healthy mindset brought on by the pandemic, while strengthening, targeting, and improving access to social protection measures and agricultural initiatives for vulnerable families with adolescents to cushion them from rising food insecurity as an effect of COVID-19. Building practical adolescent life skills to encourage healthy nutrition actions will also be key to building forward from the COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya.

Comparison of estimates of malnutrition in children aged 0-5 years between clinic-based nutrition surveillance and national surveys.

This study documents a marked discrepancy between the nutritional status of children aged 0-5 years in Botswana when measured by national surveys compared to clinic-based surveillance. We compared the average prevalence of underweight (weight-for-age z-scores below 2 standard deviations of the mean of the Center for Disease Control (CDC)/WHO reference standards) in children 0-5 years of age. According to clinic surveillance, prevalence of underweight has fallen from 14.6 ± 0.03 to 3.5 ± 0.04 per cent between 1993 and 2010. In national surveys, it had fallen from 14.6 ± 0.01 to 11.5 ± 0.01 per cent between 1993 and 2007. We explored several possibilities to explain this discrepancy, and conclude that it is because of sampling bias in the clinic surveillance. This finding underlines the need for properly conducted surveys to ensure accurate information about the nutritional status of children.