The type series of Poromitra crassiceps (Pisces, Melamphaidae) with lectotype designation.

The type series of Poromitra crassiceps (Gnther, 1878) was thought to include specimens from four localities in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern oceans. Comparison of the extant syntypes with the original description revealed that the specimen from the Pacific Ocean was not included in the original type series; one syntype from the Atlantic Ocean was never incorporated into the collection of the Natural History Museum, London, and is considered lost, and another cannot be identified due to its bad condition. The fourth syntype, from the Southern Ocean and in the best condition, is designated lectotype of this species. Molecular analysis of tissue samples collected by us as well as publically available COI sequences showed that only one species, P. crassiceps, is currently known from the Southern Ocean. Specimens from this ocean named P. atlantica (Norman, 1929) in the literature and in collections are probably misidentifications of P. crassiceps. The validity of P. atlantica needs confirmation from fresh material from the type locality.

Age and growth of Brauer's lanternfish Gymnoscopelus braueri and rhombic lanternfish Krefftichthys anderssoni (Family Myctophidae) in the Scotia Sea, Southern Ocean.

This study examines age and growth of Brauer's lanternfish Gymnoscopelus braueri and rhombic lanternfish Krefftichthys anderssoni from the Scotia Sea in the Southern Ocean, through the analysis of annual growth increments deposited on sagittal otoliths. Otolith pairs from 177 G. braueri and 118 K. anderssoni were collected in different seasons from the region between 2004 and 2009. Otolith-edge analysis suggested a seasonal change in opaque and hyaline depositions, indicative of an annual growth pattern, although variation within the populations of both species was apparent. Age estimates varied from 1 to 6 years for G. braueri (40 to 139 mm standard length; LS ) and from 0 to 2 years for K. anderssoni (26 to 70 mm LS ). Length-at-age data were broadly consistent with population cohort parameters identified in concurrent length-frequency data from the region for both species. The estimated values of von Bertalanffy growth curves for G. braueri were L∞ = 133.22 mm, k = 0.29 year-1 and t0 = -0.21 year and the values for K. anderssoni were L∞ = 68.60 mm, k = 0.71 year-1 and t0 = -0.49 year. There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in growth between sexes for either species, suggesting that males and females have similar growth and development trajectories in the Scotia Sea. A positive allometric relationship between LS and wet mass was found for each species, as well as a significant (P < 0.0001) linear relationship between otolith size and LS . Growth performance (Ф') was similar between the two species and congruent with other myctophid species across the Southern Ocean. This study provides important parameters for future Southern Ocean ecosystem studies in a resource management context.

Predicting ecological responses in a changing ocean: the effects of future climate uncertainty.

Predicting how species will respond to climate change is a growing field in marine ecology, yet knowledge of how to incorporate the uncertainty from future climate data into these predictions remains a significant challenge. To help overcome it, this review separates climate uncertainty into its three components (scenario uncertainty, model uncertainty, and internal model variability) and identifies four criteria that constitute a thorough interpretation of an ecological response to climate change in relation to these parts (awareness, access, incorporation, communication). Through a literature review, the extent to which the marine ecology community has addressed these criteria in their predictions was assessed. Despite a high awareness of climate uncertainty, articles favoured the most severe emission scenario, and only a subset of climate models were used as input into ecological analyses. In the case of sea surface temperature, these models can have projections unrepresentative against a larger ensemble mean. Moreover, 91% of studies failed to incorporate the internal variability of a climate model into results. We explored the influence that the choice of emission scenario, climate model, and model realisation can have when predicting the future distribution of the pelagic fish, Electrona antarctica. Future distributions were highly influenced by the choice of climate model, and in some cases, internal variability was important in determining the direction and severity of the distribution change. Increased clarity and availability of processed climate data would facilitate more comprehensive explorations of climate uncertainty, and increase in the quality and standard of marine prediction studies.

The impact of predation by marine mammals on patagonian toothfish longline fisheries.

Predatory interaction of marine mammals with longline fisheries is observed globally, leading to partial or complete loss of the catch and in some parts of the world to considerable financial loss. Depredation can also create additional unrecorded fishing mortality of a stock and has the potential to introduce bias to stock assessments. Here we aim to characterise depredation in the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) fishery around South Georgia focusing on the spatio-temporal component of these interactions. Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella), sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), and orcas (Orcinus orca) frequently feed on fish hooked on longlines around South Georgia. A third of longlines encounter sperm whales, but loss of catch due to sperm whales is insignificant when compared to that due to orcas, which interact with only 5% of longlines but can take more than half of the catch in some cases. Orca depredation around South Georgia is spatially limited and focused in areas of putative migration routes, and the impact is compounded as a result of the fishery also concentrating in those areas at those times. Understanding the seasonal behaviour of orcas and the spatial and temporal distribution of "depredation hot spots" can reduce marine mammal interactions, will improve assessment and management of the stock and contribute to increased operational efficiency of the fishery. Such information is valuable in the effort to resolve the human-mammal conflict for resources.

The South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands MPA: protecting a biodiverse oceanic island chain situated in the flow of the antarctic circumpolar current.

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (SGSSI) are surrounded by oceans that are species-rich, have high levels of biodiversity, important endemism and which also support large aggregations of charismatic upper trophic level species. Spatial management around these islands is complex, particularly in the context of commercial fisheries that exploit some of these living resources. Furthermore, management is especially complicated as local productivity relies fundamentally upon biological production transported from outside the area. The MPA uses practical management boundaries, allowing access for the current legal fisheries for Patagonian toothfish, mackerel icefish and Antarctic krill. Management measures developed as part of the planning process designated the whole SGSSI Maritime Zone as an IUCN Category VI reserve, within which a number of IUCN Category I reserves were identified. Multiple-use zones and temporal closures were also designated. A key multiple-use principle was to identify whether the ecological impacts of a particular fishery threatened either the pelagic or benthic domain.

Post-fledging dispersal of king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) from two breeding sites in the South Atlantic.

Most studies concerning the foraging ecology of marine vertebrates are limited to breeding adults, although other life history stages might comprise half the total population. For penguins, little is known about juvenile dispersal, a period when individuals may be susceptible to increased mortality given their naïve foraging behaviour. Therefore, we used satellite telemetry to study king penguin fledglings (n = 18) from two sites in the Southwest Atlantic in December 2007. The two sites differed with respect to climate and proximity to the Antarctic Polar Front (APF), a key oceanographic feature generally thought to be important for king penguin foraging success. Accordingly, birds from both sites foraged predominantly in the vicinity of the APF. Eight king penguins were tracked for periods greater than 120 days; seven of these (three from the Falkland Islands and four from South Georgia) migrated into the Pacific. Only one bird from the Falkland Islands moved into the Indian Ocean, visiting the northern limit of the winter pack-ice. Three others from the Falkland Islands migrated to the eastern coast of Tierra del Fuego before travelling south. Derived tracking parameters describing their migratory behaviour showed no significant differences between sites. Nevertheless, generalized linear habitat modelling revealed that juveniles from the Falkland Islands spent more time in comparatively shallow waters with low sea surface temperature, sea surface height and chlorophyll variability. Birds from South Georgia spent more time in deeper waters with low sea surface temperature and sea surface height, but high concentrations of chlorophyll. Our results indicate that inexperienced king penguins, irrespective of the location of their natal site in relation to the position of the APF, develop their foraging skills progressively over time, including specific adaptations to the environment around their prospective breeding site.

The Patagonian toothfish: biology, ecology and fishery.

Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) is a large notothenioid fish that supports valuable fisheries throughout the Southern Ocean. D. eleginoides are found on the southern shelves and slopes of South America and around the sub-Antarctic islands of the Southern Ocean. Patagonian toothfish are a long-lived species (>50 years), which initially grow rapidly on the shallow shelf areas, before undertaking an ontogenetic migration into deeper water. Although they are active predators and scavengers, there is no evidence of large-scale geographic migrations, and studies using genetics, biochemistry, parasite fauna and tagging indicate a high degree of isolation between populations in the Indian Ocean, South Georgia and the Patagonian Shelf. Patagonian toothfish spawn in deep water (ca. 1000 m) during the austral winter, producing pelagic eggs and larvae. Larvae switch to a demersal habitat at around 100 mm (1-year-old) and inhabit relatively shallow water (<300 m) until 6-7 years of age, when they begin a gradual migration into deeper water. As juveniles in shallow water, toothfish are primarily piscivorous, consuming the most abundant suitably sized local prey. With increasing size and habitat depth, the diet diversifies and includes more scavenging. Toothfish have weakly mineralised skeletons and a high fat content in muscle, which helps neutral buoyancy, but limits swimming capacity. Toothfish generally swim with labriform motion, but are capable of more rapid sub-carangiform swimming when startled. Toothfish were first caught as a by-catch (as juveniles) in shallow trawl fisheries, but following the development of deep water longlining, fisheries rapidly developed throughout the Southern Ocean. The initial rapid expansion of the fishery, which led to a peak of over 40,000 tonnes in reported landings in 1995, was accompanied by problems of bird by-catch and overexploitation as a consequence of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU). These problems have now largely been addressed, but continued vigilance is required to ensure that the species is sustainably exploited and the ecosystem effects of the fisheries are minimised.

The thermohaline expressway: the Southern Ocean as a centre of origin for deep-sea octopuses.

Understanding how environmental forcing has generated and maintained large-scale patterns of biodiversity is a key goal of evolutionary research and critical to predicting the impacts of global climate change. We suggest that the initiation of the global thermohaline circulation provided a mechanism for the radiation of Southern Ocean fauna into the deep sea. We test this hypothesis using a relaxed phylogenetic approach to coestimate phylogeny and divergence times for a lineage of octopuses with Antarctic and deep-sea representatives. We show that the deep-sea lineage had their evolutionary origins in Antarctica, and estimate that this lineage diverged around 33 million years ago (Ma) and subsequently radiated at 15 Ma. Both of these dates are critical in development of the thermohaline circulation and we suggest that this has acted as an evolutionary driver enabling the Southern Ocean to become a centre of origin for deep-sea fauna. This is the first unequivocal molecular evidence that deep-sea fauna from other ocean basins originated from Southern Ocean taxa and this is the first evidence to be dated. © The Willi Hennig Society 2008.

The absence of sharks from abyssal regions of the world's oceans.

The oceanic abyss (depths greater than 3000 m), one of the largest environments on the planet, is characterized by absence of solar light, high pressures and remoteness from surface food supply necessitating special molecular, physiological, behavioural and ecological adaptations of organisms that live there. Sampling by trawl, baited hooks and cameras we show that the Chondrichthyes (sharks, rays and chimaeras) are absent from, or very rare in this region. Analysis of a global data set shows a trend of rapid disappearance of chondrichthyan species with depth when compared with bony fishes. Sharks, apparently well adapted to life at high pressures are conspicuous on slopes down to 2000 m including scavenging at food falls such as dead whales. We propose that they are excluded from the abyss by high-energy demand, including an oil-rich liver for buoyancy, which cannot be sustained in extreme oligotrophic conditions. Sharks are apparently confined to ca 30% of the total ocean and distribution of many species is fragmented around sea mounts, ocean ridges and ocean margins. All populations are therefore within reach of human fisheries, and there is no hidden reserve of chondrichthyan biomass or biodiversity in the deep sea. Sharks may be more vulnerable to over-exploitation than previously thought.

Southern Ocean cephalopods.

The Southern Ocean cephalopod fauna is distinctive, with high levels of endemism in the squid and particularly in the octopodids. Loliginid squid, sepiids and sepiolids are absent from the Southern Ocean, and all the squid are oceanic pelagic species. The octopodids dominate the neritic cephalopod fauna, with high levels of diversity, probably associated with niche separation. In common with temperate cephalopods, Southern Ocean species appear to be semelparous, but growth rates are probably lower and longevity greater than temperate counterparts. Compared with equivalent temperate species, eggs are generally large and fecundity low, with putative long development times. Reproduction may be seasonal in the squid but is extended in the octopodids. Cephalopods play an important role in the ecology of the Southern Ocean, linking the abundant mesopelagic fish and crustaceans with higher predators such as albatross, seals and whales. To date Southern Ocean cephalopods have not been commercially exploited, but there is potential for exploitation of muscular species of the Family Ommastrephidae.

High swimming and metabolic activity in the deep-sea eel Synaphobranchus kaupii revealed by integrated in situ and in vitro measurements.

Several complementary studies were undertaken on a single species of deep-sea fish (the eel Synaphobranchus kaupii) within a small temporal and spatial range. In situ experiments on swimming and foraging behaviour, muscle performance, and metabolic rate were performed in the Porcupine Seabight, northeast Atlantic, alongside measurements of temperature and current regime. Deep-water trawling was used to collect eels for studies of animal distribution and for anatomical and biochemical analyses, including white muscle citrate synthase (CS), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), and pyruvate kinase (PK) activities. Synaphobranchus kaupii demonstrated whole-animal swimming speeds similar to those of other active deep-sea fish such as Antimora rostrata. Metabolic rates were an order of magnitude higher (31.6 mL kg(-1) h(-1)) than those recorded in other deep-sea scavenging fish. Activities of CS, LDH, MDH, and PK were higher than expected, and all scaled negatively with body mass, indicating a general decrease in muscle energy supply with fish growth. Despite this apparent constraint, observed in situ burst or routine swimming performances scaled in a similar fashion to other studied species. The higher-than-expected metabolic rates and activity levels, and the unusual scaling relationships of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism enzymes in white muscle, probably reflect the changes in habitat and feeding ecology experienced during ontogeny in this bathyal species.

Modified electroporation protocol for Lactobacilli isolated from the chicken crop facilitates transformation and the use of a genetic tool.

Isolates of Lactobacillus spp. from a collection of potentially probiotic strains isolated from the crops of broiler chickens were found to be non-electrotransformable using published techniques. One strain of Lactobacillus salivarius was shown to develop electrocompetence when an overnight culture was incubated in fresh medium. The effect was enhanced if glycine was incorporated into the fresh growth medium. When these modifications were applied to a number of other crop isolates of Lactobacillus spp., electrocompetence could be detected in approximately half the strains tested. Two temperature sensitive plasmid vectors that had been used for the genetic modification of other lactic acid bacteria were introduced into a crop strain of Lb. salivarius. Both showed temperature sensitivity at 42 degrees C and above but were relatively stable at 37 degrees C. The genetic tool harbouring an IS element allowed the delivery of the plasmid to multiple independent sites in the host chromosome. Harnessing such genetic tools will facilitate the future genetic analysis of the host bacterium.

Phylogenetic relationships among cirrate octopods (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) resolved using mitochondrial 16S ribosomal DNA sequences.

PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE CIRRATE OCTOPODS (MOLLUSCA: Cephalopoda) were investigated using partial sequences of the 16S rRNA mitochondrial gene. The derived phylogeny supports the traditional separation of cirrate families based on web form. Genera with a single web (Opisthoteuthis, Grimpoteuthis, Luteuthis, and Cirroctopus) are clearly distinct from those with an intermediate or secondary web (Cirroteuthis, Cirrothauma, and Stauroteuthis). The cirrates with a single web are separated into three groups. The first group is represented by Opisthoteuthis species, the second by Grimpoteuthis and Luteuthis, and the third by members of the genus Cirroctopus. There is no support for the isolation of Luteuthis in a separate family (Luteuthidae). There is, however, evidence of two groupings within the genus Opisthoteuthis. The data suggest the following revisions in the systematic classification of the cirrates: (1) Cirrothauma, Cirroteuthis, and Stauroteuthis be united in the Cirroteuthidae; (2) Grimpoteuthis and Luteuthis be placed in the Grimpoteuthidae; (3) Opisthoteuthis in the Opisthoteuthidae, and; (4) Cirroctopus be considered sufficiently distinct from both Opisthoteuthidae and Grimpoteuthidae to warrant placement in a new family.

Hygienic Quality of Raw Pork and Chorizo (Raw Pork Sausage) on Retail Sale in Mexico City.

A survey of raw pork and a raw fermented pork sausage, chorizo, was undertaken in Mexico City to assess the hygienic quality of these two products on retail sale in a variety of outlets. Total bacterial counts and Enterobacteriaceae counts were determined and the samples were analyzed for the presence of Salmonella spp. Pork sold from refrigerated display cabinets in supermarkets and butchers' shops was of a poor microbial quality similar to that sold in street markets. In all types of outlets, a high proportion (76%) of samples contained Salmonella spp. Hygiene scores for vendors did not correlate with microbiological quality. For chorizo, the microbial quality was related to the type of producer. The product of major commercial companies had a lower mean Enterobacteriaceae count than that of small-scale producers, but although this difference was statistically significant, counts were high for a fermented meat product. Twenty percent of chorizo samples from major producers were positive for Salmonella spp. Small-scale or "back-shop" production resulted in 72% of samples being positive for Salmonella spp. Thus neither type of chorizo could be described as being a good quality and hygienic product. It is apparent that both animal husbandry and slaughter procedures for pigs require further study, as does the pork-processing industry, in order to define how the meat becomes so heavily contaminated. Improving the quality of the raw meat will benefit consumers in the Mexico City area and will be an essential prerequisite for improving the quality of chorizo.