Circulating TNF-RII, IP-10 and HGF are associated with severity of COVID-19 in oncologic patients.

The COVID-19 patients showed hyperinflammatory response depending on the severity of the disease but little have been reported about this response in oncologic patients that also were infected with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Sixty-five circulating cytokines/chemokines were quantified in 15 oncologic patients, just after SARS-CoV-2 infection and fourteen days later, and their levels were compared in patients who required hospitalisation by COVID-19 versus non-hospitalised patients. A higher median age of 72 years (range 61-83) in oncologic patients after SARS-CoV-2 infection was associated with hospitalisation requirement by COVID-19 versus a median age of 49 years (20-75) observed in the non-hospitalised oncologic patients (p = 0.008). Moreover, oncologic patients at metastatic stage or with lung cancer were significantly associated with hospitalisation by COVID-19 (p = 0.044). None of these hospitalised patients required ICU treatment. Higher basal levels of tumour necrosis factor receptor II (TNF-RII), interferon-γ (IFNγ)-induced protein 10 (IP-10) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) in plasma were significantly observed in oncologic patients who required hospitalisation by COVID-19. Higher TNF-RII, IP-10 and HGF levels after the SARS-CoV-2 infection in oncologic patients could be used as biomarkers of COVID-19 severity associated with hospitalisation requirements.

The effects of explicit reasoning on moral judgements.

We report four experiments that investigate explicit reasoning and moral judgements. In each experiment, some subjects responded to the "footbridge" version of the trolley problem (which elicits stronger moral intuitions), whereas others responded to the "switch" version (which elicits weaker moral intuitions). Experiments 1-2 crossed the type of trolley problem with four reasoning conditions: control, counter-attitudinal, pro-attitudinal, and mixed reasoning (both types of reasoning). Experiments 3-4 examine whether moral judgements vary based on (a) when reasoners engage in counter-attitudinal reasoning, (b) when they make the moral judgement, and (c) by the type of moral dilemma. These two experiments comprised five conditions: control (judgement only), delay-only (2-minute wait then judgement), reasoning-only (reasoning then judgement), reasoning-delay (reasoning, then 2-minute delay, then judgement), and delayed-reasoning (2-minute delay, then reasoning, then judgement). These conditions were crossed with the type of trolley problem. We find that engaging in some form of counter-attitudinal reasoning led to less typical judgements (regardless of when it occurs), but this effect was mostly restricted to the switch version of the dilemma (and was strongest in the reasoning-delay conditions). Furthermore, neither pro-attitudinal reasoning nor delayed judgements on their own impacted subjects' judgements. Reasoners therefore seem open to modifying their moral judgements when they consider opposing perspectives but might be less likely to do so for dilemmas that elicit relatively strong moral intuitions.

The effects of retrieval versus study on analogical problem solving.

We report four experiments, wherein subjects engaged in either problem-solving practice or example study. First, subjects studied an example problem. Subjects in the example study condition then studied two more analogous problems, whereas subjects in the problem-solving practice conditions solved two such problems, each followed by correct-answer feedback. In Experiment 1, subjects returned 1 week later and completed a posttest on an analogous problem; in Experiments 2-4, subjects completed this posttest immediately after the learning phase. Additionally, Experiment 3 consisted of a control condition, wherein subjects solved these same problems, but did not receive feedback. Experiments 3 and 4 also included a mixed study condition, wherein subjects studied two examples and then solved one with feedback during the learning phase. Across four experiments, we found that the training conditions (i.e., problem-solving practice, mixed, and example study) performed equally well on the posttest. Moreover, subjects in the training conditions outperformed control subjects on the posttest, indicating that the null findings were due to the training conditions learning and transferring their knowledge equally well. After the posttest in Experiment 4, subjects were asked to solve repeated problems from the learning phase. Subjects in the problem-solving practice and mixed study conditions performed better on repeated problems than subjects in the example study condition, indicating that they better learned the solution strategies for these problems than subjects in the example study condition. Nevertheless, this benefit was insufficient to produce differential transfer of learning among the training conditions on the posttest.

Resetting Prices: Estimating the Effect of Tuition Reset Policies on Institutional Finances and Enrollment.

Private nonprofit colleges are increasingly using tuition resets, or a decrease in sticker price by at least 5%, to attract new students and counter declining demand. While discounting tuition with institutional aid is a common practice to get accepted students to matriculate and to increase affordability, a tuition reset is a more transparent approach that moves colleges away from a high aid/high tuition model. The authors find minimal evidence that these policies increase student enrollment in the long run, but that there may be short-term impacts. As expected, institutional aid decreases and varies directly with the size of the sticker price reduction. The average net price students pay decreases, but this effect may be driven by changes in the estimated non-tuition elements of the total cost of attendance. Finally, net tuition revenue appears unrelated to tuition resets. These findings call into question the efficacy of this practice.

Low sensitivity of the COVID-19 antigen test (PANBIO™ COVID-19 Ag rapid test) to detect asymptomatic infections in health personnel of the National Institute of Respiratory Diseases.

Background: COVID-19 requires an early diagnosis to optimize management and limit transmission. SARS-CoV-2 is able to spread effectively. Infected asymptomatic individuals have been found to be contagious. RT-qPCR is the currently recommended laboratory method for diagnosing acute infection. However, rapid antigen detection (RAD) tests are not only fast, but require less specialized training. The possibility of using RAD tests to identify asymptomatic patients is attractive, as it could effectively contribute to minimizing the hospital spread of SARS-CoV-2. The objective of the study was to determine the performance of RAD vs. RT-qPCR for the detection of asymptomatic cases in INER health personnel. Methods: In order to follow WHO guidelines, generalized tests, a test station for health care workers was implemented on demand. A rapid test was carried out and a second sample was taken to be processed by RT-qPCR. With the results of both tests we conducted a retrospective study. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and negative likelihood ratios were calculated. Results: A total of 1640 RAD tests were performed in health care workers (mean age was 39, 69, 47% with a self-reported comorbidity). Participants provided 1,640 valid RAD/RT-qPCR test pairs with 2% testing positive via RT-qPCR. 12 RAD samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2. Overall sensitivity of the PANBIO ™ COVID-19 Ag Rapid Test test was 35.2%. Conclusions: RADs are not recommended for the detection of asymptomatic cases due to low performance.

The effects of testing the relationships among relational concepts.

Many concepts are defined by their relationships to one another. However, instructors might teach these concepts individually, neglecting their interconnections. For instance, students learning about statistical power might learn how to define alpha and beta, but not how they are related. We report two experiments that examine whether there is a benefit to training subjects on relations among concepts. In Experiment 1, all subjects studied material on statistical hypothesis testing, half were subsequently quizzed on relationships among these concepts, and the other half were quizzed on their individual definitions; quizzing was used to highlight the information that was being trained in each condition (i.e., relations or definitions). Experiment 2 also included a mixed training condition that quizzed both relations and definitions, and a control condition that only included study. Subjects were then tested on both types of questions and on three conceptually related question types. In Experiment 1, subjects trained on relations performed numerically better on relational test questions than subjects trained on definitions (nonsignificant trend), whereas definitional test questions showed the reverse pattern; no performance differences were found between the groups on the other question types. In Experiment 2, relational training benefitted performance on relational test questions and on some question types that were not quizzed, whereas definitional training only benefited performance on test questions on the trained definitions. In contrast, mixed training did not aid learning above and beyond studying. Relational training thus seems to facilitate transfer of learning, whereas definitional training seems to produce training specificity effects.

Growth Promotion of Phaseolus vulgaris and Arabidopsis thaliana Seedlings by Streptomycetes Volatile Compounds

Streptomyces are recognized as antipathogenic agents and plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria. The objective of this study was to evaluate the capacities of four antifungal Streptomyces strains to: produce the substances that are involved in plant growth; solubilize phosphates; and fix nitrogen. The effects of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are emitted by these strains on the growth promotion of Arabidopsis thaliana and Phaseolus vulgaris L. (var. Pinto Saltillo) seedlings were also tested. All of the Streptomyces strains produced indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) (10.0 mg/L to 77.5 mg/L) and solubilized phosphates, but they did not fix nitrogen. In vitro assays showed that the VOCs from Streptomyces increased the shoot fresh weights (89-399%) and the root fresh weights (94-300%) in A. thaliana seedlings; however, these effects were less evident in P. vulgaris. In situ experiments showed that all the Streptomyces strains increased the shoot fresh weight (11.64-43.92%), the shoot length (11.39-29.01%), the root fresh weight (80.11-140.90%), the root length (40.06-59.01%), the hypocotyl diameter (up to 6.35%), and the chlorophyll content (up to 10.0%) in P. vulgaris seedlings. 3-Methyl-2-butanol had the highest effect among the ten pure VOCs on the growth promotion of A. thaliana seedlings. The tested Streptomyces strains favored biomass accumulation in A. thaliana and P. vulgaris seedlings.

The effects of immediate versus delayed feedback on complex concept learning.

We report three experiments that examine whether immediate versus delayed feedback produce differential concept learning. Subjects were shown hypothetical experiment scenarios and were asked to determine whether each was a true experiment. Correct-answer feedback was used for all three experiments; Experiments 2 and 3 also included detailed explanations. In all three experiments, subjects who received immediate feedback were shown the correct answer after each response. In Experiments 1 and 2, subjects in the delayed feedback condition were shown feedback after responding to all of the scenarios. All subjects then completed a posttest with novel scenarios. Experiment 3 was three parts (each session was 2 days apart). Subjects in the immediate feedback condition completed the posttest on the second session; subjects in the delayed feedback condition were given feedback on the second session and completed the posttest on the third session. Although no posttest differences were observed between the feedback conditions in Experiments 1 and 2, a delayed feedback advantage was found in Experiment 3. We propose that longer intervals in delayed feedback (relative to shorter intervals) might allow learners to forget the incorrect hypotheses they form during learning, which might thereby enhance the processing of feedback.

Facilitating transfer through incorrect examples and explanatory feedback.

This article examines whether studying correct versus incorrect examples produces differential learning. A prediction that follows from behaviourism is that learning should be best from studying correct examples. A contrasting prediction is that incorrect examples can highlight a concept's properties that are missing in the example, and thereby enable concept learning. We test these ideas across two experiments, wherein subjects were shown hypothetical study scenarios and were asked to determine whether each was a true experiment. In Experiment 1, some subjects were only presented correct examples, some were only presented incorrect examples, and others were presented both. In addition, example type was crossed with feedback type: Some subjects were given explanatory feedback and some were not given any feedback; a control condition was also included, wherein subjects were not shown any study scenarios. All subjects completed a posttest involving novel scenarios; some questions asked subjects to indicate whether they were true experiments (classification questions), and some asked them to specify what was lacking in the design or to indicate how it could be fixed (application questions). Experiment 2 used a similar design, but compared explanatory feedback with corrective feedback. In both experiments, as long as some form of feedback was provided, subjects in the mixed example condition achieved the best classification performance. Furthermore, subjects in the incorrect and mixed example conditions performed best on application questions, particularly when explanatory feedback was provided. These findings offer insights into the mechanisms that might underlie learning from incorrect examples.

The effects of early schema acquisition on mathematical problem solving.

The current paper explores the effects of providing people with schema training at the outset of learning (compared to at later stages) on mathematical word problems modeled after problems from the Graduate Record Examination. Additionally, the ratio of worked examples to problem-solving practice was manipulated. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions and were tested on near and far transfer problems. Participants provided schema training at the outset of learning outperformed those provided schema training after problem-solving practice, particularly on far transfer problems. Likewise, participants provided with a higher ratio of worked examples to problem-solving practice demonstrated better performance during testing than those provided with more problem-solving practice and fewer worked examples. These findings extend the worked example effect to far transfer problems and suggest that providing schema training prior to learning solution strategies may be effective in improving mathematical problem solving.

Learning relational concepts from within- versus between-category comparisons.

This article examines relational category learning in light of 2 influential theories of concept acquisition: the structure-mapping theory of analogy and theories of feature-based category learning. According to current theories of analogy, comparing 2 instances of a relational concept enables alignment of their elements and reveals their shared relational structure. Therefore, learning relationally defined categories should be faster when comparing items of the same category than when comparing items of different categories. By contrast, feature-based theories predict a benefit of between-category comparisons, because such comparisons direct attention to the features that discriminate the categories. The present experiments tested these predictions using a 2-category classification-learning task in which 2 items are presented on every trial: either in the same category (match condition) or in different categories (contrast condition). Subjects in the contrast condition outperformed those in the match condition for feature-based categories (Experiment 1) and across 4 different types of relational categories (Experiments 1-4). Although theorists have posited that structure-mapping theory is directly applicable to relational category learning, the present findings pose a distinct challenge to this assertion. We propose that many relational categories are learnable based solely on which relations are present in the stimulus rather than requiring explicitly compositional representations based on role-filler binding. This process would be akin to feature processing and would not require structural alignment. This theoretical proposal, together with the empirical results, may lead to a better understanding of when people do and do not engage in the cognitively demanding process of structural alignment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Hypercorrection of high-confidence errors in the classroom.

People often have erroneous knowledge about the world that is firmly entrenched in memory and endorsed with high confidence. Although strong errors in memory would seem difficult to "un-learn," evidence suggests that errors are more likely to be corrected through feedback when they are originally endorsed with high confidence compared to low confidence. This hypercorrection effect has been predominantly studied in laboratory settings with general knowledge (i.e., trivia) questions, however, and has not been systematically explored in authentic classroom contexts. In the current study, college students in an introductory horticulture class answered questions about the course content, rated their confidence in their answers, received feedback of the correct answers, and then later completed a posttest. Results revealed a significant hypercorrection effect, along with a tendency for students with higher prior knowledge of the material to express higher confidence in, and in turn more effective correction of, their error responses.

The effects of relational structure on analogical learning.

Relational structure is important for various cognitive tasks, such as analogical transfer, but its role in learning of new relational concepts is poorly understood. This article reports two experiments testing people's ability to learn new relational categories as a function of their relational structure. In Experiment 1, each stimulus consisted of 4 objects varying on 2 dimensions. Each category was defined by two binary relations between pairs of objects. The manner in which the relations were linked (i.e., by operating on shared objects) varied between subjects, producing 3 logically different conditions. In Experiment 2, each stimulus consisted of 4 objects varying on 3 dimensions. Categories were defined by three binary relations, leading to six logically different conditions. Various learning models were compared to the behavioral data, based on the theory of schema refinement. The results highlight several shortcomings of schema refinement as a model of relational learning: (1) it can make unreasonable demands on working memory, (2) it does not allow schemas to grow in complexity, and (3) it incorrectly predicts learning is insensitive to relational structure. We propose schema elaboration as an additional mechanism that provides a more complete account, and we relate this mechanism to previous proposals regarding interactions between analogy and representation construction. The current findings may advance understanding of the cognitive mechanisms involved in learning and representing relational concepts.