Removal of the endothelial surface layer via hyaluronidase does not modulate monocyte and neutrophil interactions with the glomerular endothelium.

OBJECTIVE: The endothelial surface layer (ESL), a layer of macromolecules on the surface of endothelial cells, can both impede and facilitate leukocyte recruitment. However, its role in monocyte and neutrophil recruitment in glomerular capillaries is unknown. METHODS: We used multiphoton intravital microscopy to examine monocyte and neutrophil behavior in the glomerulus following ESL disruption with hyaluronidase. RESULTS: Constitutive retention and migration of monocytes and neutrophils within the glomerular microvasculature was unaltered by hyaluronidase. Consistent with this, inhibition of the hyaluronan-binding molecule CD44 also failed to modulate glomerular trafficking of these immune cells. To investigate the contribution of the ESL during acute inflammation, we induced glomerulonephritis via in situ immune complex deposition. This resulted in increases in glomerular retention of monocytes and neutrophils but did not induce marked reduction in the glomerular ESL. Furthermore, hyaluronidase treatment did not modify the prolonged retention of monocytes and neutrophils in the acutely inflamed glomerular microvasculature. CONCLUSIONS: These observations indicate that, despite evidence that the ESL has the capacity to inhibit leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions while also containing adhesive ligands for immune cells, neither of these functions modulate trafficking of monocytes and neutrophils in steady-state or acutely-inflamed glomeruli.

Rapid neutrophil mobilization by VCAM-1+ endothelial cell-derived extracellular vesicles.

AIMS: Acute myocardial infarction rapidly increases blood neutrophils (<2 h). Release from bone marrow, in response to chemokine elevation, has been considered their source, but chemokine levels peak up to 24 h after injury, and after neutrophil elevation. This suggests that additional non-chemokine-dependent processes may be involved. Endothelial cell (EC) activation promotes the rapid (<30 min) release of extracellular vesicles (EVs), which have emerged as an important means of cell-cell signalling and are thus a potential mechanism for communicating with remote tissues. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, we show that injury to the myocardium rapidly mobilizes neutrophils from the spleen to peripheral blood and induces their transcriptional activation prior to arrival at the injured tissue. Time course analysis of plasma-EV composition revealed a rapid and selective increase in EVs bearing VCAM-1. These EVs, which were also enriched for miRNA-126, accumulated preferentially in the spleen where they induced local inflammatory gene and chemokine protein expression, and mobilized splenic-neutrophils to peripheral blood. Using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, we generated VCAM-1-deficient EC-EVs and showed that its deletion removed the ability of EC-EVs to provoke the mobilization of neutrophils. Furthermore, inhibition of miRNA-126 in vivo reduced myocardial infarction size in a mouse model. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show a novel EV-dependent mechanism for the rapid mobilization of neutrophils to peripheral blood from a splenic reserve and establish a proof of concept for functional manipulation of EV-communications through genetic alteration of parent cells.

Mass-selective and ice-free electron cryomicroscopy protein sample preparation via native electrospray ion-beam deposition.

Despite tremendous advances in sample preparation and classification algorithms for electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM) and single-particle analysis (SPA), sample heterogeneity remains a major challenge and can prevent access to high-resolution structures. In addition, optimization of preparation conditions for a given sample can be time-consuming. In the current work, it is demonstrated that native electrospray ion-beam deposition (native ES-IBD) is an alternative, reliable approach for the preparation of extremely high-purity samples, based on mass selection in vacuum. Folded protein ions are generated by native electrospray ionization, separated from other proteins, contaminants, aggregates, and fragments, gently deposited on cryo-EM grids, frozen in liquid nitrogen, and subsequently imaged by cryo-EM. We demonstrate homogeneous coverage of ice-free cryo-EM grids with mass-selected protein complexes. SPA reveals that the complexes remain folded and assembled, but variations in secondary and tertiary structures are currently limiting information in 2D classes and 3D EM density maps. We identify and discuss challenges that need to be addressed to obtain a resolution comparable to that of the established cryo-EM workflow. Our results show the potential of native ES-IBD to increase the scope and throughput of cryo-EM for protein structure determination and provide an essential link between gas-phase and solution-phase protein structures.

Human Plasminogen Exacerbates Clostridioides difficile Enteric Disease and Alters the Spore Surface.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The protease plasmin is an important wound healing factor, but it is not clear how it affects gastrointestinal infection-mediated damage, such as that resulting from Clostridioides difficile. We investigated the role of plasmin in C difficile-associated disease. This bacterium produces a spore form that is required for infection, so we also investigated the effects of plasmin on spores. METHODS: C57BL/6J mice expressing the precursor to plasmin, the zymogen human plasminogen (hPLG), or infused with hPLG were infected with C difficile, and disease progression was monitored. Gut tissues were collected, and cytokine production and tissue damage were analyzed by using proteomic and cytokine arrays. Antibodies that inhibit either hPLG activation or plasmin activity were developed and structurally characterized, and their effects were tested in mice. Spores were isolated from infected patients or mice and visualized using super-resolution microscopy; the functional consequences of hPLG binding to spores were determined. RESULTS: hPLG localized to the toxin-damaged gut, resulting in immune dysregulation with an increased abundance of cytokines (such as interleukin [IL] 1A, IL1B, IL3, IL10, IL12B, MCP1, MP1A, MP1B, GCSF, GMCSF, KC, TIMP-1), tissue degradation, and reduced survival. Administration of antibodies that inhibit plasminogen activation reduced disease severity in mice. C difficile spores bound specifically to hPLG and active plasmin degraded their surface, facilitating rapid germination. CONCLUSIONS: We found that hPLG is recruited to the damaged gut, exacerbating C difficile disease in mice. hPLG binds to C difficile spores, and, upon activation to plasmin, remodels the spore surface, facilitating rapid spore germination. Inhibitors of plasminogen activation might be developed for treatment of C difficile or other infection-mediated gastrointestinal diseases.

RGD inhibition of itgb1 ameliorates laminin-α2-deficient zebrafish fibre pathology.

Deficiency of muscle basement membrane (MBM) component laminin-α2 leads to muscular dystrophy congenital type 1A (MDC1A), a currently untreatable myopathy. Laminin--α2 has two main binding partners within the MBM, dystroglycan and integrin. Integrins coordinate both cell adhesion and signalling; however, there is little mechanistic insight into integrin's function at the MBM. In order to study integrin's role in basement membrane development and how this relates to the MBM's capacity to handle force, an itgß1.b-/- zebrafish line was created. Histological examination revealed increased extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition at the MBM in the itgß1.b-/- fish when compared with controls. Surprisingly, both laminin and collagen proteins were found to be increased in expression at the MBM of the itgß1.b-/- larvae when compared with controls. This increase in ECM components resulted in a decrease in myotomal elasticity as determined by novel passive force analyses. To determine if it was possible to control ECM deposition at the MBM by manipulating integrin activity, RGD peptide, a potent inhibitor of integrin-ß1, was injected into a zebrafish model of MDC1A. As postulated an increase in laminin and collagen was observed in the lama2-/- mutant MBM. Importantly, there was also an improvement in fibre stability at the MBM, judged by a reduction in fibre pathology. These results therefore show that blocking ITGß1 signalling increases ECM deposition at the MBM, a process that could be potentially exploited for treatment of MDC1A.

Outer membrane vesicles from Neisseria gonorrhoeae target PorB to mitochondria and induce apoptosis.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae causes the sexually transmitted disease gonorrhoea by evading innate immunity. Colonizing the mucosa of the reproductive tract depends on the bacterial outer membrane porin, PorB, which is essential for ion and nutrient uptake. PorB is also targeted to host mitochondria and regulates apoptosis pathways to promote infections. How PorB traffics from the outer membrane of N. gonorrhoeae to mitochondria and whether it modulates innate immune cells, such as macrophages, remains unclear. Here, we show that N. gonorrhoeae secretes PorB via outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). Purified OMVs contained primarily outer membrane proteins including oligomeric PorB. The porin was targeted to mitochondria of macrophages after exposure to purified OMVs and wild type N. gonorrhoeae. This was associated with loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, release of cytochrome c, activation of apoptotic caspases and cell death in a time-dependent manner. Consistent with this, OMV-induced macrophage death was prevented with the pan-caspase inhibitor, Q-VD-PH. This shows that N. gonorrhoeae utilizes OMVs to target PorB to mitochondria and to induce apoptosis in macrophages, thus affecting innate immunity.

Overcoming Monocarboxylate Transporter 8 (MCT8)-Deficiency to Promote Human Oligodendrocyte Differentiation and Myelination.

Cell membrane thyroid hormone (TH) transport can be facilitated by the monocarboxylate transporter 8 (MCT8), encoded by the solute carrier family 16 member 2 (SLC16A2) gene. Human mutations of the gene, SLC16A2, result in the X-linked-inherited psychomotor retardation and hypomyelination disorder, Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome (AHDS). We posited that abrogating MCT8-dependent TH transport limits oligodendrogenesis and myelination. We show that human oligodendrocytes (OL), derived from the NKX2.1-GFP human embryonic stem cell (hESC) reporter line, express MCT8. Moreover, treatment of these cultures with DITPA (an MCT8-independent TH analog), up-regulates OL differentiation transcription factors and myelin gene expression. DITPA promotes hESC-derived OL myelination of retinal ganglion axons in co-culture. Pharmacological and genetic blockade of MCT8 induces significant OL apoptosis, impairing myelination. DITPA treatment limits OL apoptosis mediated by SLC16A2 down-regulation primarily signaling through AKT phosphorylation, driving myelination. Our results highlight the potential role of MCT8 in TH transport for human OL development and may implicate DITPA as a promising treatment for developmentally-regulated myelination in AHDS.

Bacterial membrane vesicles transport their DNA cargo into host cells.

Bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are extracellular sacs containing biologically active products, such as proteins, cell wall components and toxins. OMVs are reported to contain DNA, however, little is known about the nature of this DNA, nor whether it can be transported into host cells. Our work demonstrates that chromosomal DNA is packaged into OMVs shed by bacteria during exponential phase. Most of this DNA was present on the external surfaces of OMVs, with smaller amounts located internally. The DNA within the internal compartments of Pseudomonas aeruginosa OMVs were consistently enriched in specific regions of the bacterial chromosome, encoding proteins involved in virulence, stress response, antibiotic resistance and metabolism. Furthermore, we demonstrated that OMVs carry DNA into eukaryotic cells, and this DNA was detectable by PCR in the nuclear fraction of cells. These findings suggest a role for OMV-associated DNA in bacterial-host cell interactions and have implications for OMV-based vaccines.

Tetraspanin CD37 Regulates ß2 Integrin-Mediated Adhesion and Migration in Neutrophils.

Deciphering the molecular basis of leukocyte recruitment is critical to the understanding of inflammation. In this study, we investigated the contribution of the tetraspanin CD37 to this key process. CD37-deficient mice showed impaired neutrophil recruitment in a peritonitis model. Intravital microscopic analysis indicated that the absence of CD37 impaired the capacity of leukocytes to follow a CXCL1 chemotactic gradient accurately in the interstitium. Moreover, analysis of CXCL1-induced leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in postcapillary venules revealed that CXCL1-induced neutrophil adhesion and transmigration were reduced in the absence of CD37, consistent with a reduced capacity to undergo ß2 integrin-dependent adhesion. This result was supported by in vitro flow chamber experiments that demonstrated an impairment in adhesion of CD37-deficient neutrophils to the ß2 integrin ligand, ICAM-1, despite the normal display of high-affinity ß2 integrins. Superresolution microscopic assessment of localization of CD37 and CD18 in ICAM-1-adherent neutrophils demonstrated that these molecules do not significantly cocluster in the cell membrane, arguing against the possibility that CD37 regulates ß2 integrin function via a direct molecular interaction. Moreover, CD37 ablation did not affect ß2 integrin clustering. In contrast, the absence of CD37 in neutrophils impaired actin polymerization, cell spreading and polarization, dysregulated Rac-1 activation, and accelerated ß2 integrin internalization. Together, these data indicate that CD37 promotes neutrophil adhesion and recruitment via the promotion of cytoskeletal function downstream of integrin-mediated adhesion.

Zebrafish models for nemaline myopathy reveal a spectrum of nemaline bodies contributing to reduced muscle function.

Nemaline myopathy is characterized by muscle weakness and the presence of rod-like (nemaline) bodies. The genetic etiology of nemaline myopathy is becoming increasingly understood with mutations in ten genes now known to cause the disease. Despite this, the mechanism by which skeletal muscle weakness occurs remains elusive, with previous studies showing no correlation between the frequency of nemaline bodies and disease severity. To investigate the formation of nemaline bodies and their role in pathogenesis, we generated overexpression and loss-of-function zebrafish models for skeletal muscle α-actin (ACTA1) and nebulin (NEB). We identify three distinct types of nemaline bodies and visualize their formation in vivo, demonstrating these nemaline bodies not only exhibit different subcellular origins, but also have distinct pathological consequences within the skeletal muscle. One subtype is highly dynamic and upon breakdown leads to the accumulation of cytoplasmic actin contributing to muscle weakness. Examination of a Neb-deficient model suggests this mechanism may be common in nemaline myopathy. Another subtype results from a reduction of actin and forms a more stable cytoplasmic body. In contrast, the final type originates at the Z-disk and is associated with myofibrillar disorganization. Analysis of zebrafish and muscle biopsies from ACTA1 nemaline myopathy patients demonstrates that nemaline bodies also possess a different protein signature. In addition, we show that the ACTA1(D286G) mutation causes impaired actin incorporation and localization in the sarcomere. Together these data provide a novel examination of nemaline body origins and dynamics in vivo and identifies pathological changes that correlate with muscle weakness.

Assembly of the secretion pores GspD, Wza and CsgG into bacterial outer membranes does not require the Omp85 proteins BamA or TamA.

In Gram-negative bacteria, ß-barrel proteins are integrated into the outer membrane by the ß-barrel assembly machinery, with key components of the machinery being the Omp85 family members BamA and TamA. Recent crystal structures and cryo-electron microscopy show a diverse set of secretion pores in Gram-negative bacteria, with α-helix (Wza and GspD) or ß-strand (CsgG) transmembrane segments in the outer membrane. We developed assays to measure the assembly of three distinct secretion pores that mediate protein (GspD), curli fibre (CsgG) and capsular polysaccharide (Wza) secretion by bacteria and show that depletion of BamA and TamA does not diminish the assembly of Wza, GspD or CsgG. Like the well characterised pilotins for GspD and other secretins, small periplasmic proteins enhance the assembly of the CsgG ß-barrel. We discuss a model for integral protein assembly into the bacterial outer membrane, focusing on the commonalities and differences in the assembly of Wza, GspD and CsgG.

Islet cholesterol accumulation due to loss of ABCA1 leads to impaired exocytosis of insulin granules.

OBJECTIVE: The ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) is essential for normal insulin secretion from ß-cells. The aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the impaired insulin secretion in islets lacking ß-cell ABCA1. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Calcium imaging, patch clamp, and membrane capacitance were used to assess the effect of ABCA1 deficiency on calcium flux, ion channel function, and exocytosis in islet cells. Electron microscopy was used to analyze ß-cell ultrastructure. The quantity and distribution of proteins involved in insulin-granule exocytosis were also investigated. RESULTS: We show that a lack of ß-cell ABCA1 results in impaired depolarization-induced exocytotic fusion of insulin granules. We observed disturbances in membrane microdomain organization and Golgi and insulin granule morphology in ß-cells as well as elevated fasting plasma proinsulin levels in mice in the absence of ß-cell ABCA1. Acute cholesterol depletion rescued the exocytotic defect in ß-cells lacking ABCA1, indicating that elevated islet cholesterol accumulation directly impairs granule fusion and insulin secretion. CONCLUSIONS: Our data highlight a crucial role of ABCA1 and cellular cholesterol in ß-cells that is necessary for regulated insulin granule fusion events. These data suggest that abnormalities of cholesterol metabolism may contribute to the impaired ß-cell function in diabetes.

Expedited approaches to whole cell electron tomography and organelle mark-up in situ in high-pressure frozen pancreatic islets.

We have developed a simplified, efficient approach for the 3D reconstruction and analysis of mammalian cells in toto by electron microscope tomography (ET), to provide quantitative information regarding 'global' cellular organization at approximately 15-20 nm resolution. Two insulin-secreting beta cells-deemed 'functionally equivalent' by virtue of their location at the periphery of the same pancreatic islet-were reconstructed in their entirety in 3D after fast-freezing/freeze-substitution/plastic embedment in situ within a glucose-stimulated islet of Langerhans isolated intact from mouse pancreata. These cellular reconstructions have afforded several unique insights into fundamental structure-function relationships among key organelles involved in the biosynthesis and release of the crucial metabolic hormone, insulin, that could not be provided by other methods. The Golgi ribbon, mitochondria and insulin secretory granules in each cell were segmented for comparative analysis. We propose that relative differences between the two cells in terms of the number, dimensions and spatial distribution (and for mitochondria, also the extent of branching) of these organelles per cubic micron of cellular volume reflects differences in the two cells' individual capacity (and/or readiness) to respond to secretagogue stimulation, reflected by an apparent inverse relationship between the number/size of insulin secretory granules versus the number/size of mitochondria and the Golgi ribbon. We discuss the advantages of this approach for quantitative cellular ET of mammalian cells, briefly discuss its application relevant to other complementary techniques, and summarize future strategies for overcoming some of its current limitations.

Regulated autophagy controls hormone content in secretory-deficient pancreatic endocrine beta-cells.

Endocrine cells are continually regulating the balance between hormone biosynthesis, secretion, and intracellular degradation to ensure that cellular hormone stores are maintained at optimal levels. In pancreatic beta-cells, intracellular insulin stores in beta-granules are mostly upheld by efficiently up-regulating proinsulin biosynthesis at the translational level to rapidly replenish the insulin lost via exocytosis. Under normal circumstances, intracellular degradation of insulin plays a relatively minor janitorial role in retiring aged beta-granules, apparently via crinophagy. However, this mechanism alone is not sufficient to maintain optimal insulin storage in beta-cells when insulin secretion is dysfunctional. Here, we show that despite an abnormal imbalance of glucose/glucagon-like peptide 1 regulated insulin production over secretion in Rab3A(-/-) mice compared with control animals, insulin storage levels were maintained due to increased intracellular beta-granule degradation. Electron microscopy analysis indicated that this was mediated by a significant 12-fold up-regulation of multigranular degradation vacuoles in Rab3A(-/-) mouse islet beta-cells (P