Age-related decline in cerebral oxygen consumption in multiple sclerosis.

Cerebral oxygen metabolism is altered in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), possibly a result of disease related cerebral atrophy with subsequent decreased oxygen demand. However, MS inflammation can also inhibit brain metabolism. Therefore, we measured cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (CMRO2) using MRI phase contrast mapping and susceptibility-based oximetry in 44 patients with early RRMS and 36 healthy controls. Cerebral atrophy and white matter lesion load were assessed from high-resolution structural MRI. Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) scores were collected from medical records. The CMRO2 was significantly lower in patients (-15%, p = 0.002) and decreased significantly with age in patients relative to the controls (-1.35 µmol/100 g/min/year, p = 0.036). The lower CMRO2 in RRMS was primarily driven by a higher venous oxygen saturation in the sagittal sinus (p = 0.007) and not a reduction in CBF (p = 0.69). There was no difference in cerebral atrophy between the groups, and no correlation between CMRO2 and MS lesion volume or EDSS score. Therefore, the progressive CMRO2 decline observed before the occurrence of significant cerebral atrophy and despite adequate CBF supports emerging evidence of dysfunctional cellular respiration as a potential pathogenic mechanism and therapeutic target in RRMS.

Capillary transit time heterogeneity inhibits cerebral oxygen metabolism in patients with reduced cerebrovascular reserve capacity from steno-occlusive disease.

The healthy cerebral perfusion demonstrates a homogenous distribution of capillary transit times. A disruption of this homogeneity may inhibit the extraction of oxygen. A high degree of capillary transit time heterogeneity (CTH) describes that some capillaries have very low blood flows, while others have excessively high blood flows and consequently short transit times. Very short transit times could hinder the oxygen extraction due to insufficient time for diffusion of oxygen into the tissue. CTH could be a consequence of cerebral vessel disease. We examined whether patients with cerebral steno-occlusive vessel disease demonstrate high CTH and if elevation of cerebral blood flow (CBF) by administration of acetazolamide (ACZ) increases the cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (CMRO2), or if some patients demonstrate reduced CMRO2 related to detrimental CTH. Thirty-four patients and thirty-one healthy controls participated. Global CBF and CMRO2 were acquired using phase-contrast MRI. Regional brain maps of CTH were acquired using dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI. Patients with impaired cerebrovascular reserve capacity demonstrated elevated CTH and a significant reduction of CMRO2 after administration of ACZ, which could be related to high CTH. Impaired oxygen extraction from CTH could be a contributing part of the declining brain health observed in patients with cerebral vessel disease.

Reproducibility and Optimal Arterial Input Function Selection in Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Perfusion MRI in the Healthy Brain.

BACKGROUND: Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) has seen increasing use for quantification of low level of blood-brain barrier (BBB) leakage in various pathological disease states and correlations with clinical outcomes. However, currently there exists limited studies on reproducibility in healthy controls, which is important for the establishment of a normality threshold for future research. PURPOSE: To investigate the reproducibility of DCE-MRI and to evaluate the effect of arterial input function (AIF) selection and manual region of interests (ROI) delineation vs. automated global segmentation. STUDY TYPE: Prospective. POPULATION: A total of 16 healthy controls; 11 females; mean age 28.7 years (SD 10.1). FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE: A 3T; GE DCE; 3D TFE T1WI. 2D TSE T2. ASSESSMENT: The influx constant Ki , a measure of BBB permeability, and Vp , the blood plasma volume, was calculated using the Patlak model. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) was calculated using Tikhonov model free deconvolution. Manual tissue ROIs, drawn by H.J.S. (30+ years of experience), were compared to automatic tissue segmentation. STATISTICAL TESTS: Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and repeatability coefficient (RC) was used to assess reproducibility. Bland-Altman plots were used to evaluate agreement between measurements day 1 vs. day 2, and manual vs. segmentation method. RESULTS: Ki showed excellent reproducibility in both white and gray matter with an ICC between 0.79 and 0.82 and excellent agreement between manual ROI and automatic segmentation, with an ICC of 0.89 for Ki in WM. Furthermore, Ki values in gray and white matter conforms with histological tissue characteristics, where gray matter generally has a 2-fold higher vessel density. The highest reproducibility measures of Ki (ICC = 0.83), CBF (ICC = 0.77) and Vd (ICC = 0.83) was obtained with the AIF sampled in the internal carotid artery (ICA). DATA CONCLUSION: DCE-MRI shows excellent reproducibility of pharmacokinetic variables derived from healthy controls. EVIDENCE LEVEL: 2 TECHNICAL EFFICACY: Stage 2.

Cerebrovascular Reactivity and Neurovascular Coupling in Multiple Sclerosis-A Systematic Review.

The inflammatory processes observed in the central nervous system in multiple sclerosis (MS) could damage the endothelium of the cerebral vessels and lead to a dysfunctional regulation of vessel tonus and recruitment, potentially impairing cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) and neurovascular coupling (NVC). Impaired CVR or NVC correlates with declining brain health and potentially plays a causal role in the development of neurodegenerative disease. Therefore, we examined studies on CVR or NVC in MS patients to evaluate the evidence for impaired cerebrovascular function as a contributing disease mechanism in MS. Twenty-three studies were included (12 examined CVR and 11 examined NVC). Six studies found no difference in CVR response between MS patients and healthy controls. Five studies observed reduced CVR in patients. This discrepancy can be because CVR is mainly affected after a long disease duration and therefore is not observed in all patients. All studies used CO2 as a vasodilating stimulus. The studies on NVC demonstrated diverse results; hence a conclusion that describes all the published observations is difficult to find. Future studies using quantitative techniques and larger study samples are needed to elucidate the discrepancies in the reported results.

Performance of the 2017 and 2010 Revised McDonald Criteria in Predicting MS Diagnosis After a Clinically Isolated Syndrome: A MAGNIMS Study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: To compare the performance of the 2017 revisions to the McDonald criteria with the 2010 McDonald criteria in establishing multiple sclerosis (MS) diagnosis and predicting prognosis in patients with clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) suggestive of MS. METHODS: CSF examination and brain and spinal cord MRI obtained ≤5 months from CIS onset and a follow-up brain MRI acquired within 15 months from CIS onset were evaluated in 785 patients with CIS from 9 European centers. Date of second clinical attack and of reaching Expanded Disability Status Scale score (EDSS) ≥3.0, if they occurred, were also collected. Performance of the 2017 and 2010 McDonald criteria for dissemination in space (DIS), dissemination in time (DIT) (including oligoclonal bands assessment), and DIS plus DIT for predicting a second clinical attack (clinically definite MS [CDMS]) and EDSS ≥3.0 at follow-up was evaluated. Time to MS diagnosis for the different criteria was also estimated. RESULTS: At follow-up (median 69.1 months), 406/785 patients with CIS developed CDMS. At 36 months, the 2017 DIS plus DIT criteria had higher sensitivity (0.83 vs 0.66), lower specificity (0.39 vs 0.60), and similar area under the curve values (0.61 vs 0.63). Median time to MS diagnosis was shorter with the 2017 vs the 2010 or CDMS criteria (2017 revision, 3.2; 2010 revision, 13.0; CDMS, 58.5 months). The 2 sets of criteria similarly predicted EDSS ≥3.0 milestone. Three periventricular lesions improved specificity in patients ≥45 years. DISCUSSION: The 2017 McDonald criteria showed higher sensitivity, lower specificity, and similar accuracy in predicting CDMS compared to 2010 McDonald criteria, while shortening time to diagnosis of MS. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This study provides Class II evidence that the 2017 McDonald Criteria more accurately distinguish CDMS in patients early after a CIS when compared to the 2010 McDonald criteria.

Blood-brain barrier permeability measured using dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging: a validation study.

KEY POINTS: The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an important and dynamic structure which contributes to homeostasis in the central nervous system. BBB permeability changes occur in health and disease but measurement of BBB permeability in humans is not straightforward. Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) can be used to model the movement of gadolinium contrast into the brain, expressed as the influx constant Ki . Here evidence is provided that Ki as measured by DCE-MRI behaves as expected for a marker of overall BBB leakage. These results support the use of DCE-MRI for in vivo studies of human BBB permeability in health and disease. ABSTRACT: Blood-brain barrier (BBB) leakage can be measured using dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) as the influx constant Ki . To validate this method we compared measured Ki with biological expectations, namely (1) higher Ki in healthy individual grey matter (GM) versus white matter (WM), (2) GM/WM cerebral blood volume (CBV) ratio close to the histologically established GM/WM vascular density ratio, (3) higher Ki in visibly enhancing multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions versus MS normal appearing white matter (NAWM), and (4) higher Ki in MS NAWM versus healthy individual NAWM. We recruited 13 healthy individuals and 12 patients with MS and performed whole-brain 3D DCE-MRI at 3 T. Ki and CBV were calculated using Patlak modelling for manual regions of interest (ROI) and segmented tissue masks. Ki was higher in control GM versus WM (P = 0.001). CBV was higher in GM versus WM (P = 0.005, mean ratio 1.9). Ki was higher in visibly enhancing MS lesions versus MS NAWM (P = 0.002), and in MS NAWM versus controls (P = 0.014). Bland-Altman analysis showed no significant difference between ROI and segmentation methods (P = 0.638) and an intra-class correlation coefficient showed moderate single measure consistency (0.610). Ki behaves as expected for a compound marker of permeability and surface area. The GM/WM CBV ratio measured by this technique is in agreement with the literature. This adds evidence to the validity of Ki measured by DCE-MRI as a marker of overall BBB leakage.

Permeability of the blood-brain barrier predicts no evidence of disease activity at 2 years after natalizumab or fingolimod treatment in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, as measured by dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI), can provide early detection of suboptimal treatment response in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). METHODS: Thirty-five RRMS patients starting on fingolimod or natalizumab, drugs with a common effect of decreasing lymphocyte influx into the central nervous system, were scanned with DCE-MRI at 3T prior to treatment and at 3 and 6 months posttreatment. We calculated the influx constant Ki , a measure of BBB permeability, using the Patlak model. Suboptimal treatment response was defined as loss of no evidence of disease activity (NEDA) status after 2 years of treatment. RESULTS: Subjects with loss of NEDA status at 2 years had a 51% higher mean Ki in normal-appearing white matter (NAWM) measured after 6 months of treatment, compared to subjects with maintained NEDA status (mean difference = 0.06ml/100g/min, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.02-0.09, p = 0.002). Ki in NAWM at 6 months was a good predictor of loss of NEDA status at 2 years (area under the curve = 0.84, 95% CI = 0.70-0.99, p = 0.003), and a value above 0.136ml/100/g/min yielded an odds ratio of 12.4 for suboptimal treatment response at 2 years, with a sensitivity of 73% and a specificity of 82%. INTERPRETATION: Our results suggest that BBB permeability as measured by DCE-MRI reliably predicts suboptimal treatment response and is a surrogate marker of the state of health of the BBB. We find a predictive threshold for disease activity, which is remarkably identical in clinically isolated syndrome as previously reported and established RRMS as investigated here. Ann Neurol 2018;83:902-914.

Prediction of a multiple sclerosis diagnosis in patients with clinically isolated syndrome using the 2016 MAGNIMS and 2010 McDonald criteria: a retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: In 2016, the Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Multiple Sclerosis (MAGNIMS) network proposed modifications to the MRI criteria to define dissemination in space (DIS) and time (DIT) for the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis in patients with clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). Changes to the DIS definition included removal of the distinction between symptomatic and asymptomatic lesions, increasing the number of lesions needed to define periventricular involvement to three, combining cortical and juxtacortical lesions, and inclusion of optic nerve evaluation. For DIT, removal of the distinction between symptomatic and asymptomatic lesions was suggested. We compared the performance of the 2010 McDonald and 2016 MAGNIMS criteria for multiple sclerosis diagnosis in a large multicentre cohort of patients with CIS to provide evidence to guide revisions of multiple sclerosis diagnostic criteria. METHODS: Brain and spinal cord MRI and optic nerve assessments from patients with typical CIS suggestive of multiple sclerosis done less than 3 months from clinical onset in eight European multiple sclerosis centres were included in this retrospective study. Eligible patients were 16-60 years, and had a first CIS suggestive of CNS demyelination and typical of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, a complete neurological examination, a baseline brain and spinal cord MRI scan obtained less than 3 months from clinical onset, and a follow-up brain scan obtained less than 12 months from CIS onset. We recorded occurrence of a second clinical attack (clinically definite multiple sclerosis) at months 36 and 60. We evaluated MRI criteria performance for DIS, DIT, and DIS plus DIT with a time-dependent receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. FINDINGS: Between June 16, 1995, and Jan 27, 2017, 571 patients with CIS were screened, of whom 368 met all study inclusion criteria. At the last evaluation (median 50·0 months [IQR 27·0-78·4]), 189 (51%) of 368 patients developed clinically definite multiple sclerosis. At 36 months, the two DIS criteria showed high sensitivity (2010 McDonald 0·91 [95% CI 0·85-0·94] and 2016 MAGNIMS 0·93 [0·88-0·96]), similar specificity (0·33 [0·25-0·42] and 0·32 [0·24-0·41]), and similar area under the curve values (AUC; 0·62 [0·57-0·67] and 0·63 [0·58-0·67]). Performance was not affected by inclusion of symptomatic lesions (sensitivity 0·92 [0·87-0·96], specificity 0·31 [0·23-0·40], AUC 0·62 [0·57-0·66]) or cortical lesions (sensitivity 0·92 [0·87-0·95], specificity 0·32 [0·24-0·41], AUC 0·62 [0·57-0·67]). Requirement of three periventricular lesions resulted in slightly lower sensitivity (0·85 [0·78-0·90], slightly higher specificity (0·40 [0·32-0·50], and similar AUC (0·63 [0·57-0·68]). Inclusion of optic nerve evaluation resulted in similar sensitivity (0·92 [0·87-0·96]), and slightly lower specificity (0·26 [0·18-0·34]) and AUC (0·59 [0·55-0·64]). AUC values were also similar for DIT (2010 McDonald 0·61 [0·55-0·67] and 2016 MAGNIMS 0·61 [0·55-0·66]) and DIS plus DIT (0·62 [0·56-0·67] and 0·64 [0·58-0·69]). INTERPRETATION: The 2016 MAGNIMS criteria showed similar accuracy to the 2010 McDonald criteria in predicting the development of clinically definite multiple sclerosis. Inclusion of symptomatic lesions is expected to simplify the clinical use of MRI criteria without reducing accuracy, and our findings suggest that needing three lesions to define periventricular involvement might slightly increase specificity, suggesting that these two factors could be considered during further revisions of multiple sclerosis diagnostic criteria. FUNDING: UK MS Society, National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, Dutch MS Research Foundation.

Increased brainstem perfusion, but no blood-brain barrier disruption, during attacks of migraine with aura.

See Moskowitz (doi:10.1093/brain/awx099) for a scientific commentary on this article.The migraine aura is characterized by transient focal cortical disturbances causing dramatic neurological symptoms that are usually followed by migraine headache. It is currently not understood how the aura symptoms are related to the headache phase of migraine. Animal studies suggest that cortical spreading depression, the likely mechanism of migraine aura, causes disruption of the blood-brain barrier and noxious stimulation of trigeminal afferents leading to activation of brainstem nuclei and triggering of migraine headache. We used the sensitive and validated technique of dynamic contrast-enhanced high-field magnetic resonance imaging to simultaneously investigate blood-brain barrier permeability and tissue perfusion in the brainstem (at the level of the lower pons), visual cortex, and brain areas of the anterior, middle and posterior circulation during spontaneous attacks of migraine with aura. Patients reported to our institution to undergo magnetic resonance imaging during the headache phase after presenting with typical visual aura. Nineteen patients were scanned during attacks and on an attack-free day. The mean time from attack onset to scanning was 7.6 h. We found increased brainstem perfusion bilaterally during migraine with aura attacks. Perfusion also increased in the visual cortex and posterior white matter following migraine aura. We found no increase in blood-brain barrier permeability in any of the investigated regions. There was no correlation between blood-brain barrier permeability, brain perfusion, and time from symptom onset to examination or pain intensity. Our findings demonstrate hyperperfusion in brainstem during the headache phase of migraine with aura, while the blood-brain barrier remains intact during attacks of migraine with aura. These data thus contradict the preclinical hypothesis of cortical spreading depression-induced blood-brain barrier disruption as a possible mechanism linking aura and headache.awx089media15422686892001.

Brain capillary transit time heterogeneity in healthy volunteers measured by dynamic contrast-enhanced T1 -weighted perfusion MRI.

PURPOSE: Capillary transit time heterogeneity, measured as CTH, may set the upper limit for extraction of substances in brain tissue, e.g., oxygen. The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility of dynamic contrast-enhanced T1 weighted MRI (DCE-MRI) at 3 Tesla (T), in estimating CTH based on a gamma-variate model of the capillary transit time distribution. In addition, we wanted to investigate if a subtle increase of the blood-brain barrier permeability can be incorporated into the model, still allowing estimation of CTH. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-three healthy subjects were scanned at 3.0T MRI system applying DCE-MRI and using a gamma-variate model to estimate CTH as well as cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV), and permeability of the blood-brain barrier, measured as the influx constant Ki . For proof of principle we also investigated three patients with recent thromboembolic events and a patient with a high grade brain tumor. RESULTS: In the healthy subjects, we found a narrow symmetric delta-like capillary transit time distribution in basal ganglia gray matter with median CTH of 0.93 s and interquartile range of 1.33 s. The corresponding residue impulse response function was compatible with the adiabatic tissue homogeneity model. In two patients with complete occlusion of the internal carotid artery and in the patient with a brain tumor CTH was increased with values up to 6 s in the affected brain tissue, with an exponential like residue impulse response function. CONCLUSION: Our results open the possibility of characterizing brain perfusion by the capillary transit time distribution using DCE-MRI, theoretically a determinant of efficient blood to brain transport of important substances. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2 J. MAGN. RESON. IMAGING 2017;45:1809-1820.

Permeability of the blood-brain barrier predicts conversion from optic neuritis to multiple sclerosis.

Optic neuritis is an acute inflammatory condition that is highly associated with multiple sclerosis. Currently, the best predictor of future development of multiple sclerosis is the number of T2 lesions visualized by magnetic resonance imaging. Previous research has found abnormalities in the permeability of the blood-brain barrier in normal-appearing white matter of patients with multiple sclerosis and here, for the first time, we present a study on the capability of blood-brain barrier permeability in predicting conversion from optic neuritis to multiple sclerosis and a direct comparison with cerebrospinal fluid markers of inflammation, cellular trafficking and blood-brain barrier breakdown. To this end, we applied dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging at 3 T to measure blood-brain barrier permeability in 39 patients with monosymptomatic optic neuritis, all referred for imaging as part of the diagnostic work-up at time of diagnosis. Eighteen healthy controls were included for comparison. Patients had magnetic resonance imaging and lumbar puncture performed within 4 weeks of onset of optic neuritis. Information on multiple sclerosis conversion was acquired from hospital records 2 years after optic neuritis onset. Logistic regression analysis showed that baseline permeability in normal-appearing white matter significantly improved prediction of multiple sclerosis conversion (according to the 2010 revised McDonald diagnostic criteria) within 2 years compared to T2 lesion count alone. There was no correlation between permeability and T2 lesion count. An increase in permeability in normal-appearing white matter of 0.1 ml/100 g/min increased the risk of multiple sclerosis 8.5 times whereas having more than nine T2 lesions increased the risk 52.6 times. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis of permeability in normal-appearing white matter gave a cut-off of 0.13 ml/100 g/min, which predicted conversion to multiple sclerosis with a sensitivity of 88% and specificity of 72%. We found a significant correlation between permeability and the leucocyte count in cerebrospinal fluid as well as levels of CXCL10 and MMP9 in the cerebrospinal fluid. These findings suggest that blood-brain barrier permeability, as measured by magnetic resonance imaging, may provide novel pathological information as a marker of neuroinflammation related to multiple sclerosis, to some extent reflecting cellular permeability of the blood-brain barrier, whereas T2 lesion count may more reflect the length of the subclinical pre-relapse phase.See Naismith and Cross (doi:10.1093/brain/awv196) for a scientific commentary on this article.

Accurate determination of blood-brain barrier permeability using dynamic contrast-enhanced T1-weighted MRI: a simulation and in vivo study on healthy subjects and multiple sclerosis patients.

Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) is increasingly used to estimate permeability in situations with subtle blood-brain barrier (BBB) leakage. However, the method's ability to differentiate such low values from zero is unknown, and no consensus exists on optimal selection of total measurement duration, temporal resolution, and modeling approach under varying physiologic circumstances. To estimate accuracy and precision of the DCE-MRI method we generated simulated data using a two-compartment model and progressively down-sampled and truncated the data to mimic low temporal resolution and short total measurement duration. Model fit was performed with the Patlak, the extended Tofts, and the Tikhonov two-compartment (Tik-2CM) models. Overall, 17 healthy controls were scanned to obtain in vivo data. Long total measurement duration (15 minutes) and high temporal resolution (1.25 seconds) greatly improved accuracy and precision for all three models, enabling us to differentiate values of permeability as low as 0.1 ml/100 g/min from zero. The Patlak model yielded highest accuracy and precision for permeability values <0.3 ml/100 g/min, but for higher values the Tik-2CM performed best. Our results emphasize the importance of optimal parameter setup and model selection when characterizing low BBB permeability.

Relationship between cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for inflammation, demyelination and neurodegeneration in acute optic neuritis.

BACKGROUND: Various inflammatory biomarkers show prognostic potential for multiple sclerosis (MS)-risk after clinically isolated syndromes. However, biomarkers are often examined singly and their interrelation and precise aspects of their associated pathological processes remain unclear. Clarification of these relationships could aid the appropriate implementation of prognostic biomarkers in clinical practice. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the interrelation between biomarkers of inflammation, demyelination and neurodegeneration in acute optic neuritis and to assess their association to measures of MS risk. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A prospective study at a tertiary referral centre from June 2011 to December 2012 of 56 patients with optic neuritis as a first demyelinating symptom and 27 healthy volunteers. Lumbar puncture was performed within 28 (median 16) days of onset. CSF levels of CXCL13, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, CXCL10, CCL-2, osteopontin and chitinase-3-like-1, myelin basic protein (MBP) and neurofilament light-chain (NF-L) were determined. MS-risk outcome measures were dissemination in space (DIS) of white matter lesions on cerebral MRI, CSF oligoclonal bands and elevated IgG-index. RESULTS: IN THE INTERRELATION ANALYSIS THE BIOMARKERS SHOWED CLOSE CORRELATIONS WITHIN TWO DISTINCT GROUPS: Biomarkers of leukocyte infiltration (CXCL13, MMP-9 and CXCL10) were strongly associated (p<0.0001 for all). Osteopontin and chitinase-3-like-1 were also tightly associated (p<0.0001) and correlated strongly to tissue damage markers (NF-L and MBP). The biomarkers of leukocyte infiltration all associated strongly with MS-risk parameters, whereas CHI3L1 and MBP correlated with MRI DIS, but not with CSF MS-risk parameters and osteopontin and NF-L did not correlate with any MS-risk parameters. CONCLUSIONS: OUR FINDINGS SUGGEST TWO DISTINCT INFLAMMATORY PROCESSES: one of leukocyte infiltration, represented by CXCL13, CXCL10 and MMP-9, strongly associated with and potentially predicting MS-risk; the other represented by osteopontin and CHI3L1, suggesting tissue damage-related inflammation, potentially predicting residual disabilities after attack and perhaps cumulative damage over time. These hypotheses should be further addressed in follow-up studies.