Potential paths for the introduction of risk analysis to improve the veterinary epidemiology curriculum in Ukraine.

The main purpose of veterinary education institutions is to prepare qualified, well-trained and knowledgeable professionals ready to serve local and global communities. Veterinary programmes vary within and among countries, creating a disparity in competencies. In less-developed economies, adhering to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) â€ËœDay 1 competencies' and following its â€ËœGuidelines for a Model Core Veterinary Curriculum' may decrease this discrepancy. The authors offer a comparison of Ukraine's veterinary epidemiology curriculum with the OIE suggested â€ËœCore Veterinary Curriculum', particularly for infectious disease pathology in which epidemiology is taught, and propose different paths to structure advanced educational programmes in epidemiology. This course is relevant for the development of international animal trade and expansion of markets for animal products in Ukraine.

Le principal objectif des établissements d'enseignement vétérinaire consiste à préparer des professionnels qualifiés, bien formés et compétents prêts à se mettre au service de leur communauté locale et, plus largement, de la communauté mondiale. Les programmes d'enseignement de la médecine vétérinaire varient d'un pays à l'autre et parfois même à l'échelle nationale, aboutissant ainsi à des compétences disparates. Dans les pays en développement, l'adhésion aux recommandations de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) sur les compétences minimales attendues des jeunes diplômés en médecine vétérinaire (compétences dites « au premier jour ¼) et aux lignes directrices de l'OIE relatives au Cursus de formation initiale vétérinaire permet de réduire ces disparités. Les auteurs procèdent à une comparaison entre le cursus d'épidémiologie vétérinaire en Ukraine et le cursus de formation initiale vétérinaire recommandé par l'OIE, en particulier en ce qui concerne les cours de pathologie des maladies infectieuses qui intègrent une composante épidémiologique ; ils proposent ensuite différentes voies permettant de structurer des programmes d'enseignement de haut niveau en épidémiologie. Ces formations sont nécessaires pour soutenir les échanges internationaux d'animaux et améliorer l'accès aux marchés des produits d'origine animale ukrainiens. L'épidémiologie est une discipline essentielle pour le Secteur de l'évaluation des risques, récemment créés au sein des Services nationaux ukrainiens chargés de la sécurité sanitaire des aliments et la protection des consommateurs. La formation professionnelle est d'une importance cruciale et les vétérinaires diplômés issus des institutions ukrainiennes seront dotés des compétences de base essentielles pour commencer à travailler à l'appui des échanges internationaux d'animaux et de produits d'origine animale et rejoindre la fonction publique. Les objectifs à long terme visent à améliorer les programmes d'enseignement vétérinaire en Ukraine, en réformant l'enseignement de l'épidémiologie, et à concevoir et diffuser un modèle d'évaluation du contenu des cours d'épidémiologie dans les écoles vétérinaires dans l'ensemble du pays.

Los establecimientos de enseñanza veterinaria tienen por principal cometido preparar a profesionales cualificados, bien formados e informados y prestos para servir a la población local y mundial. Dado que los programas de enseñanza veterinaria varían entre países y dentro de ellos, también difieren las competencias adquiridas. En economías poco desarrolladas, el hecho de guiarse por las «competencias mínimas¼ del recién titulado, según las define la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE), y de seguir las pautas del «Modelo de plan de estudios básico de formación veterinaria¼ de la OIE puede ayudar a reducir estas disparidades. Los autores comparan el plan de estudios ucraniano en materia de epidemiología veterinaria con el «Plan de estudios básico de formación veterinaria¼ recomendado por la OIE, sobre todo en lo tocante a las enfermedades infecciosas, pues en esta materia se inscribe la enseñanza de la epidemiología, y proponen diferentes fórmulas para estructurar programas de formación avanzada al respecto. Esta formación reviste interés para el desarrollo del comercio internacional de animales y la expansión de los mercados de productos animales en Ucrania. La epidemiología es esencial para el Sector de la evaluación de riesgos recién creados en el Servicio Estatal Ucraniano de Higiene de los Alimentos y Protección del Consumidor. La formación de profesionales reviste máxima importancia. Los veterinarios titulados por establecimientos ucranianos contarán con los conocimientos básicos necesarios para empezar a trabajar en el comercio de animales y productos de origen animal o para administraciones públicas. El objetivo a largo plazo se cifra en mejorar el plan de estudios veterinarios de Ucrania introduciendo cambios en las clases de epidemiología y en elaborar una plantilla común para evaluar los contenidos de epidemiología impartidos en las facultades de veterinaria de cualquier parte del país.

Using multi-criteria risk ranking methodology to select case studies for a generic risk assessment framework for exotic disease incursion and spread through Europe.

We present a novel approach of using the multi-criteria pathogen prioritisation methodology as a basis for selecting the most appropriate case studies for a generic risk assessment framework. The approach uses selective criteria to rank exotic animal health pathogens according to the likelihood of introduction and the impact of an outbreak if it occurred in the European Union (EU). Pathogens were evaluated based on their impact on production at the EU level and international trade. A subsequent analysis included criteria of relevance to quantitative risk assessment case study selection, such as the availability of data for parameterisation, the need for further research and the desire for the case studies to cover different routes of transmission. The framework demonstrated is flexible with the ability to adjust both the criteria and their weightings to the user's requirements. A web based tool has been developed using the RStudio shiny apps software, to facilitate this.

Rabies Vaccination: Higher Failure Rates in Imported Dogs than in those Vaccinated in Italy.

The current European Union (EU) legislation decrees that pets entering the EU from a rabies-infected third country have to obtain a satisfactory virus-neutralizing antibody level, while those moving within the EU require only rabies vaccination as the risk of moving a rabid pet within the EU is considered negligible. A number of factors driving individual variations in dog vaccine response have been previously reported, including a high rate of vaccine failure in puppies, especially those subject to commercial transport. A total of 21 001 observations collected from dogs (2006-2012) vaccinated in compliance with the current EU regulations were statistically analysed to assess the effect of different risk factors related to rabies vaccine efficacy. Within this framework, we were able to compare the vaccination failure rate in a group of dogs entering the Italian border from EU and non-EU countries to those vaccinated in Italy prior to international travel. Our analysis identified that cross-breeds and two breed categories showed high vaccine success rates, while Beagles and Boxers were the least likely to show a successful response to vaccination (88.82% and 90.32%, respectively). Our analysis revealed diverse performances among the commercially available vaccines, in terms of serological peak windows, and marked differences according to geographical area. Of note, we found a higher vaccine failure rate in imported dogs (13.15%) than in those vaccinated in Italy (5.89%). Our findings suggest that the choice of vaccine may influence the likelihood of an animal achieving a protective serological level and that time from vaccination to sampling should be considered when interpreting serological results. A higher vaccine failure in imported compared to Italian dogs highlights the key role that border controls still have in assessing the full compliance of pet movements with EU legislation to minimize the risk of rabies being reintroduced into a disease-free area.

Modelling the species jump: towards assessing the risk of human infection from novel avian influenzas.

The scientific understanding of the driving factors behind zoonotic and pandemic influenzas is hampered by complex interactions between viruses, animal hosts and humans. This complexity makes identifying influenza viruses of high zoonotic or pandemic risk, before they emerge from animal populations, extremely difficult and uncertain. As a first step towards assessing zoonotic risk of influenza, we demonstrate a risk assessment framework to assess the relative likelihood of influenza A viruses, circulating in animal populations, making the species jump into humans. The intention is that such a risk assessment framework could assist decision-makers to compare multiple influenza viruses for zoonotic potential and hence to develop appropriate strain-specific control measures. It also provides a first step towards showing proof of principle for an eventual pandemic risk model. We show that the spatial and temporal epidemiology is as important in assessing the risk of an influenza A species jump as understanding the innate molecular capability of the virus. We also demonstrate data deficiencies that need to be addressed in order to consistently combine both epidemiological and molecular virology data into a risk assessment framework.

Influenza surveillance in animals: what is our capacity to detect emerging influenza viruses with zoonotic potential?

A survey of national animal influenza surveillance programmes was conducted to assess the current capacity to detect influenza viruses with zoonotic potential in animals (i.e. those influenza viruses that can be naturally transmitted between animals and humans) at regional and global levels. Information on 587 animal influenza surveillance system components was collected for 99 countries from Chief Veterinary Officers (CVOs) (n = 94) and published literature. Less than 1% (n = 4) of these components were specifically aimed at detecting influenza viruses with pandemic potential in animals (i.e. those influenza viruses that are capable of causing epidemic spread in human populations over large geographical regions or worldwide), which would have zoonotic potential as a prerequisite. Those countries that sought to detect influenza viruses with pandemic potential searched for such viruses exclusively in domestic pigs. This work shows the global need for increasing surveillance that targets potentially zoonotic influenza viruses in relevant animal species.

Influenza at the animal-human interface: a review of the literature for virological evidence of human infection with swine or avian influenza viruses other than A(H5N1).

Factors that trigger human infection with animal influenza virus progressing into a pandemic are poorly understood. Within a project developing an evidence-based risk assessment framework for influenza viruses in animals, we conducted a review of the literature for evidence of human infection with animal influenza viruses by diagnostic methods used. The review covering Medline, Embase, SciSearch and CabAbstracts yielded 6,955 articles, of which we retained 89; for influenza A(H5N1) and A(H7N9), the official case counts of t he World Health Organization were used. An additional 30 studies were included by scanning the reference lists. Here, we present the findings for confirmed infections with virological evidence. We found reports of 1,419 naturally infected human cases, of which 648 were associated with avian influenza virus (AIV) A(H5N1), 375 with other AIV subtypes, and 396 with swine influenza virus (SIV). Human cases naturally infected with AIV spanned haemagglutinin subtypes H5, H6, H7, H9 and H10. SIV cases were associated with endemic SIV of H1 and H3 subtype descending from North American and Eurasian SIV lineages and various reassortants thereof. Direct exposure to birds or swine was the most likely source of infection for the cases with available information on exposure.

First evidence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus circulation in Algeria (Sahrawi territories): outbreak investigation and virus lineage identification.

Following reports of increased mortality in the small ruminant population of the Sahrawi territories, western Algeria, between January and May 2010, local veterinary authorities suspected an outbreak of peste des petits ruminants (PPR). An investigation was implemented in May 2010 and followed up in October 2010 in the Sahrawi refugee camps, Tindouf province, with the objective of confirming the circulation of the peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV). Laboratory results confirmed the presence of PPRV in 33.3% of the samples. Sequence analysis revealed that the virus belonged to Lineage IV and phylogenetic analysis indicated a close relationship (99.3%) with the PPRV isolated during the Moroccan outbreak in 2008.

Effects of cold-water immersion and contrast-water therapy after training in young soccer players.

AIM: Recent studies have investigated the importance of recovery strategies after training session, including hydrotherapy and cryotherapy. However, only a few studies have focused on cold-water immersion (CWI) treatments in team sport disciplines. The present study investigates the effects of CWI and contrast-water therapy (CWT) on the performance of young male soccer players during a week of training. METHODS: Eighteen young soccer players participated in the present study (age 15.5±1.0 years, weight 61.8±3.0 Kg, height 175.5±4.0 cm and training experience 8.1±1.0 years). They were involved in a four-day study with recovery using CWI or with CWT after each training session by using performance tests and small-sided games. We measured uric acid concentration, leukocytes, haemoglobin, reticulocytes and creatine kinase changes in the blood, axillary temperature, rating of perceived exertion after a training session, heart rate during exercise, performance tests (counter movement jump, repeated sprint ability and 5' shuttle run). RESULTS: No significant difference were reported between groups when different physiological tests were used; CWI and CWT did not negatively influence the performances of the athletes. The principal effect of CWI was a reduced perception of fatigue after the training session. The use of active recovery protocols based on cold water or cold/thermoneutral water did not induce modifications of inflammatory and haematological markers in young soccer players. CONCLUSION: The beneficial effect of a reduced perception of fatigue can improve training and competitions in young soccer players.

Redox properties and cross-linking of the dithiol/disulphide active sites of mammalian protein disulphide-isomerase.

1. The redox properties of the active-site dithiol/disulphide groups of PDI were determined by equilibrating the enzyme with an excess of GSH + GSSG, rapidly alkylating the dithiol form of the enzyme to inactivate it irreversibly, and determining the proportion of the disulphide form by measuring the residual activity under standard conditions. 2. The extent of reduction varied with the applied redox potential; to a first approximation, the data fitted a model in which all the enzyme dithiol/disulphide groups are independent and equivalent and the equilibrium constant between these sites and the GSH/GSSG redox couple is 42 microM at pH 7.5. 3. The standard redox potential for PDI active-site dithiol/disulphide couples was calculated from this result and found to be -0.11 V; hence PDI is a stronger oxidant and weaker reductant than GSH, nicotinamide cofactors, thioredoxin and dithiothreitol. 4. The redox equilibrium data for PDI with the GSH/GSSG redox couple showed sigmoidal deviations from linearity. The sigmoidicity could be modelled closely by assuming a Hill coefficient of 1.5. 5. This evidence of co-operative interactions between the four active sites in a PDI dimer was extended by studying the reaction between PDI and homobifunctional alkylating agents with various lengths between the reactive groups. A species whose electrophoretic mobility suggested it contained an intrachain cross-link was observed in all cases, whereas there was no evidence for cross-linking between the chains of the PDI homodimer. Most effective cross-linking was achieved with reagents containing five or more methylene spacer groups, implying a minimum distance of 1.6 nm (16 A) between the active-site reactive groups within the two thioredoxin-like domains of the PDI polypeptide.