Review on impacts of micro- and nano-plastic on aquatic ecosystems and mitigation strategies.

The rapid proliferation of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in our environment presents a formidable hazard to both biotic and abiotic components. These pollutants originate from various sources, including commercial production and the breakdown of larger plastic particles. Widespread contamination of the human body, agroecosystems, and animals occurs through ingestion, entry into the food chain, and inhalation. Consequently, the imperative to devise innovative methods for MPs and NPs remediation has become increasingly apparent. This review explores the current landscape of strategies proposed to mitigate the escalating threats associated with plastic waste. Among the array of methods in use, microbial remediation emerges as a promising avenue for the decomposition and reclamation of MPs and NPs. In response to the growing concern, numerous nations have already implemented or are in the process of adopting regulations to curtail MPs and NPs in aquatic habitats. This paper aims to address this gap by delving into the environmental fate, behaviour, transport, ecotoxicity, and management of MPs and NPs particles within the context of nanoscience, microbial ecology, and remediation technologies. Key findings of this review encompass the intricate interdependencies between MPs and NPs and their ecosystems. The ecological impact, from fate to ecotoxicity, is scrutinized in light of the burgeoning environmental imperative. As a result, this review not only provides an encompassing understanding of the ecological ramifications of MPs and NPs but also highlights the pressing need for further research, innovation, and informed interventions.

Quality, safety and efficacy profiling of ginseng adventitious roots produced in vitro.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, Family Araliaceae) is one of the major medicinal and nutraceutical plants, which is native to oriental region. It is used worldwide as a popular herbal medicine because of its pharmacological effects like anti-oxidative, anti aging, anti-cancer, adaptogenic, and other health-improving activities. Chief components of ginseng identified till date are ginsenosides, a group of saponins with triterpenoid structure. Ginseng is cultivated under controlled conditions, and for harvesting of fully grown roots of the plant, the cultivation takes long duration of about 5-7 years and cultivated ginseng roots are inferior in quality and ginsenoside content. Wild Mountain ginseng is superior in quality and ginsenoside content but is scarce in nature. Therefore, for obtaining the useful compounds of this plant at commercial scale, cell and organ cultures especially adventitious roots have been established by using superior clones of wild mountain ginseng, ginseng biomass is produced by applying large scale bioreactors. In this paper, an effort has been made to shed light on the scientific literature and to decipher the evidences for quality, safety, and efficacy of ginseng adventitious roots produced from in vitro cultures.

Production of Gymnemic Acid from Cell Suspension Cultures of Gymnema sylvestre.

Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. is a popular herbal medicine. It has been used in ayurvedic system of medicine for thousands of years. It is popularly called as "Gur-mar" for its distinctive property of temporarily destroying the taste of sweetness and is used in the treatment of diabetes. The leaves of gymnema possess antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-hypercholesterolemic, anti-sweetener, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties and have traditional uses in the treatment of asthma, eye complaints, and snake bite. The leaves contain triterpene saponins such as gymnemic acid which is an active ingredient of Gymnema. Since the cultivation of G. sylvestre is a very slow process and the content of gymnemic acid depends on the environmental factors, cell suspension culture is sought as an alternative means for the production of Gymnema biomass and to enhance the gymnemic acid content. In this chapter, the methods employed for the induction of callus and subsequent establishment of cell suspension cultures for the production of biomass and analysis of gymnemic acid using high performance liquid chromatography are described.

The safety assessment of food ingredients derived from plant cell, tissue and organ cultures: a review.

Plant cell, tissue and organ cultures (PCTOC) have become an increasingly attractive alternative for the production of various high molecular weight molecules which are used as flavourings, fragrances, colouring agents and food additives. Although PCTOC products are cultivated in vitro in a contamination free environment, the raw material produced from PCTOC may contain many components apart from the target compound. In some cases, PCTOC raw materials may also carry toxins, which may be naturally occurring or accumulated during the culture process. Assessment of the safety of PCTOC products is, therefore, a priority of the biotech industries involved in their production. The safety assessment involves the evaluation of starting material, production process and the end product. Before commercialisation, PCTOC products should be evaluated for their chemical and biological properties, as well as for their toxicity. In this review, measures and general criteria for biosafety evaluation of PCTOC products are addressed and thoroughly discussed.

Hepatoprotective activity of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng adventitious roots against carbon tetrachloride treated hepatic injury in rats.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) has a beneficial role in the treatment of various diseases including liver disorders like acute/chronic hepatotoxicity, hepatitis, hepatic fibrosis/cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Tissue culture raised mountain ginseng adventitious root (TCMGARs) extract with ginsenosides in abundance was used as an experimental material. 'Sprague-Dawley' male rats were used as experimental systems and were fed with TCMGARs extracts at doses of 30, 100, 300mg/kg body weight for two weeks to test the effect on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced acute liver damage. Field cultivated Korean ginseng root extract fed rats (100mg/kg) were used as positive control. Plasma enzyme levels, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were assessed. Glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations were also evaluated. RESULTS: TCMGARs extracts remarkably prevented the elevation of ALT, AST, ALP and liver peroxides in CCl4-treated rats. Hepatic glutathione levels were significantly increased by the treatment with the extracts in experimental groups. CONCLUSION: The TCMGARs rich in varied ginsenosides can afford protection against CCl4-induced hepatocellular injury.

Efficacy of ginseng adventitious root extract on hyperglycemia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ginseng has various bioactive effects on human health including its potential activity of improving the glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Tissue culture raised mountain ginseng adventitious root (TCMGARs) extract enriched with ginsenosides was used as experimental material. Streptozotocin-induced diabetic 'Sprague Dawley' male rats were used as experimental systems and were fed with Tissue culture raised mountain ginseng adventitious root extract. Field cultivated Korean ginseng root extract fed rats were used as positive control and several indices such as body weight, blood glucose level and other serological indicators were tested. RESULTS: Chemical profile showed TCMGARs were rich in varied ginsenosides especially Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Rg3, and Rh2 when compared to field cultivated Korean ginseng. TCMGARs extract at dosage levels of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight significantly lowered the blood glucose, total cholesterol and triglyceride content in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. CONCLUSION: The data of in vivo experiments on anti-glycemic effects of TCMGARs proves their efficacy and also their use as dietary supplement.