Advanced detection tools in food fraud: A systematic review for holistic and rational detection method based on research and patents.

Modern food chain supply management necessitates the dire need for mitigating food fraud and adulterations. This holistic review addresses different advanced detection technologies coupled with chemometrics to identify various types of adulterated foods. The data on research, patent and systematic review analyses (2018-2023) revealed both destructive and non-destructive methods to demarcate a rational approach for food fraud detection in various countries. These intricate hygiene standards and AI-based technology are also summarized for further prospective research. Chemometrics or AI-based techniques for extensive food fraud detection are demanded. A systematic assessment reveals that various methods to detect food fraud involving multiple substances need to be simple, expeditious, precise, cost-effective, eco-friendly and non-intrusive. The scrutiny resulted in 39 relevant experimental data sets answering key questions. However, additional research is necessitated for an affirmative conclusion in food fraud detection system with modern AI and machine learning approaches.

Dynamic alterations in physiological and biochemical indicators of Cirrhinus mrigala hatchlings: A sublethal exposure of triclosan.

Triclosan (TCS), a biocide used in various day-to-day products, has been associated with several toxic effects in aquatic organisms. In the present study, biochemical and hematological alterations were evaluated after 14 d (sublethal) exposure of tap water (control), acetone (solvent control), 5, 10, 20, and 50 µg/L (environmentally relevant concentrations) TCS to the embryos/hatchlings of Cirrhinus mrigala, a major freshwater carp distributed in tropic and sub-tropical areas of Asia. A concentration-dependent increase in the content of urea and protein carbonyl, while a decrease in the total protein, glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, uric acid, and bilirubin was observed after the exposure. Hematological analysis revealed a decrease in the total erythrocyte count, hemoglobin, and partial pressure of oxygen, while there was an increase in the total leucocyte count, carbon dioxide, and partial pressure of carbon dioxide and serum electrolytes. Comet assay demonstrates a concentration-dependent increase in tail length, tail moment, olive tail moment, and percent tail DNA. An amino acid analyzer showed a TCS-dose-dependent increase in various amino acids. Sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis revealed different proteins ranging from 6.5 to 200 kDa, demonstrating TCS-induced upregulation. Fourier transform infrared spectra analysis exhibited a decline in peak area percents with an increase in the concentration of TCS in water. Curve fitting of amide I (1,700-1600 cm-1) showed a decline in α-helix and turns and an increase in ß-sheets. Nuclear magnetic resonance study also revealed concentration-dependent alterations in the metabolites after 14 d exposure. TCS caused alterations in the biomolecules and heamatological parameters of fish, raising the possibility that small amounts of TCS may change the species richness in natural aquatic habitats. In addition, consuming TCS-contaminated fish may have detrimental effects on human health. Consequently, there is a need for the proper utilisation and disposal of this hazardous compound in legitimate quantities.

Environmentally relevant concentrations of Triclosan cause transcriptomic and biomolecular alterations in the hatchlings of Labeo rohita.

Suppression (p ≤ 0.05) of antioxidative/detoxification (except GPx and CYP3a) and cytoskeletal (except DHPR) genes but induction of metabolic (except for AST and TRY) and heat shock (except HSP60) genes of Labeo rohita hatchlings after 14 days of exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of Triclosan (0.0063, 0.0126, 0.0252 and 0.06 mg/L) was followed by an increase (p ≤ 0.05) for most of the genes after 10 days recovery period. After recovery, LDH, ALT, CK, CHY, PA, HSP47 and DHPR declined, while SOD, CAT, GST, GR, GPx, CYP1a, CYP3a, AST, AChE, TRY, HSP60, HSP70, HSc71, HSP90 MLP-3, α-tropomyosin, desmin b and lamin b1 increased over exposure. Peak area of biomolecules (except 3290-3296, 2924-2925 and 2852-2855 cm-1) declined (p ≤ 0.01) more after recovery [except for an increase (p ≤ 0.01) at 1398-1401 cm-1]. CYP3a, CK, HSP90, MLP-3 and secondary structure of amide A are the most sensitive markers for the environmentally relevant concentrations of Triclosan.

Biomolecular alterations in the early life stages of four food fish following acute exposure of Triclosan.

We investigated the effect of acute concentrations of triclosan (TCS; 96 h exposure and 10d post exposure) on the free amino acid, primary (SDS-PAGE) and secondary (FT-IR) structure of proteins in the embryos/larvae of Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala. A concentration dependent increase in free amino acids, upregulation of polypeptides (100 and 70 kDa in C. carpio, C. idella and L. rohita, 55, 45, 36 kda in C. idella and L. rohita and 22 kDa in all the fish) and a decline in percent area of all the selected peaks of the FT-IR spectra was observed after exposure and recovery period. The decline in percent area was greatest for L. rohita at peak 1080 - 1088 cm-1 (-75.99%) after exposure and at peak 2854 - 2855 cm-1 (-53.59%) after recovery. Curve fitting analysis revealed a decrease in α-helices and increase in ß-sheets in all fish after exposure and recovery period. The results suggest that TCS elicits alterations in biomolecules of fish embryos.

Understanding the effects of ultrasound processng on texture and rheological properties of food.

The demand for the production of high quality and safe food products has been ever increasing. Consequently, the industry is looking for novel technologies in food processing operations that are cost-effective, rapid and have a better efficiency over traditional methods. Ultrasound is well-known technology to enhance the rate of heat and mass transfer providing a high end-product quality, at just a fraction of time and energy normally required for conventional methods. The irradiation of foods with ultrasound creates acoustic cavitation that has been used to cause desirable changes in the treated products. The technology is being successfully used in various unit operations such as sterilization, pasteurization, extraction, drying, emulsification, degassing, enhancing oxidation, thawing, freezing and crystallization, brining, pickling, foaming and rehydration, and so forth. However, the high pressure and temperature associated with the cavitation process is expected to induce some changes in the textural and rheological properties of foods which form an important aspect of product quality in terms of consumer acceptability. The present review is aimed to focus on the effects of ultrasound processing on the textural and rheological properties of food products and how these properties are influenced by the process variables.

Triclosan elicited biochemical and transcriptomic alterations in Labeo rohita larvae.

In the current study, Triclosan (TCS, a commonly used antimicrobial agent) induced alterations in biochemical parameters and gene expression were recorded in the larvae of Labeo rohita after 96 h exposure and 10 days recovery period to find out health status biomarkers. 96 h exposure to 0.06, 0.067 and 0.097 mg/L TCS significantly declined the levels of glucose, triglycerides, urea and uric acid and activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT). There was a non-significant decline in the levels of cholesterol and total protein but albumin and total bilirubin showed no change. After 10 days of recovery period, trend was opposite for glucose, urea and ALP only. Decline in the expression of trypsin and pancreatic amylase and elevation in creatine kinase during exposure to TCS showed a reverse trend after recovery period. However, concentration dependent elevation of chymotrypsin persisted till the end of recovery period. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed association of total protein, ALP, GOT, creatine kinase and pancreatic amylase with PC1 after exposure as well as recovery period. Therefore, these can be considered as important biomolecules for identification of health status of TCS stressed fish.

Genomic markers for the biological responses of Triclosan stressed hatchlings of Labeo rohita.

Triclosan (TCS) used commonly in pharmaceuticals and personal care products has become the most common pollutant in water. Three-day-old hatchlings of an indigenous fish, Labeo rohita, were given 96h exposure to a nonlethal (60 µg L-1) and two moderately lethal concentrations (67 and 97 µg L-1) of TCS and kept for 10 days of recovery for recording transcriptomic alterations in antioxidant/detoxification (SOD, GST, CAT, GPx, GR, CYP1a and CYP3a), metabolic (LDH, ALT and AST) and neurological (AchE) genes and DNA damage. The data were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) for obtaining biomarkers for the toxicity of TCS. Hatchlings were highly sensitive to TCS (96h LC50 = 126 µg L-1 and risk quotient = 40.95), 96h exposure caused significant induction of CYP3a, AChE and ALT but suppression of all other genes. However, expression of all the genes increased significantly (except for a significant decline in ALT) after recovery. Concentration-dependent increase was also observed in DNA damage [Tail Length (TL), Tail Moment (TM), Olive Tail Moment (OTM) and Percent Tail DNA (TDNA)] after 96 h. The damage declined significantly over 96h values at 60 and 67 µg L-1 after recovery, but was still several times more than control. TCS elicited genomic alterations resulted in 5-11% mortality of exposed hatchlings during the recovery period. It is evident that hatchlings of L. rohita are a potential model and PCA shows that OTM, TL, TM, TDNA, SOD and GR (association with PC1 during exposure and recovery) are the biomarkers for the toxicity of TCS. Graphical abstract.

Biomarkers for the toxicity of sublethal concentrations of triclosan to the early life stages of carps.

Accumulation, contents of protein, non-enzymatic antioxidant glutathione (GSH and GSSG), lipid peroxidation product (melondialdehyde-MDA) and organic acids (fumarate, succinate, malate and citrate), and activities of neurological (acetylcholinesterase-AChE), detoxification (glutathione S-transferase-GST) and metabolic (lactate dehydrogenase-LDH, aspartate transaminase-AST and alanine transaminase-ALT) enzymes were recorded in the hatchlings of Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala after 7 and 14 days exposure and 10 days post exposure (recovery period) to sublethal concentrations (0.005, 0.01, 0.02 and 0.05 mg/L) of triclosan, a highly toxic and persistent biocide used in personal care products. Accumulation was maximum between 7-14 days at 0.01 mg/L for C. carpio and L. rohita but at 0.005 mg/L for C. idella and C. mrigala. No triclosan was observed at 0.005 mg/L in C. carpio and C. mrigala after recovery. Significant decline in protein, glutathione and acetylcholinesterase but increase in glutathione S-transferase, lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, melondialdehyde and organic acids over control during exposure continued till the end of recovery period. Integrated biomarker response (IBR) analysis depicted higher star plot area for glutathione and glutathione S-transferase during initial 7 days of exposure, thereafter, during 7-14 days of exposure and the recovery period, higher star plot area was observed for acetylcholinesterase, aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase and organic acids. Higher star plot area was observed for protein in all the species throughout the study. The study shows that L. rohita is most sensitive and glutathione, acetylcholinesterase, aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase are the biomarkers for the toxicity of sublethal concentrations of TCS.

Biochemical markers for prolongation of the acute stress of triclosan in the early life stages of four food fishes.

In the present study, embryos of four food fishes viz. Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala were given acute (96 h) exposure to their respective LC0, LC10 and LC30 (causing 0, 10 and 30% mortality, respectively) concentrations of triclosan [TCS, 5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy) phenol], a broad spectrum biocide. Bioaccumulation, contents of protein, non-enzymatic antioxidants (GSH and GSSG), MDA (lipid peroxidation product) and organic acids (fumarate, succinate, malate and citrate) along with the activities of AChE (neurological enzyme), GST (detoxification enzyme) and three metabolic enzymes (LDH, AST and ALT) were estimated after 48 and 96 h exposure and 10 days post exposure. Around 1/10 of the TCS in water got accumulated in the hatchlings after 96 h, increase over 48 h values was maximum at LC0 (+195.30, +143.23 and + 140.75%) but minimum at LC30 (+89.62, +84.26 and + 126.72%) for C. idella, L. rohita and C. mrigala, respectively. In C. carpio, TCS got accumulated only at LC30 after 48 h but at all the concentrations after 96 h exposure. Contents of protein, GSH, GSSG and activity of AChE decreased but activities of GSH, LDH, AST and ALT and contents of MDA and organic acids increased concentration dependently in all the fishes. TCS declined by 85-90% but its toxic effects on biomolecules prolonged till the end of the recovery period. Such acute exposures are accidental but there is a need to evaluate biomarkers for prolongation of the stress of small concentrations especially LC0 and LC10 (causing negligible mortality) of lipophilic pollutants like TCS.

Teratogenicity and accumulation of triclosan in the early life stages of four food fish during the bioassay.

TCS [5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol] caused a concentration dependent delay in embryonic development, delay and decline in hatching and reduction in length and weight of hatchlings along with an increase in abnormal/deformed embryos and larvae and percent mortality. These parameters varied in a species specific manner and increased with TCS residue in body. The 96 h LC50 values of TCS for Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala were estimated at 0.315, 0.116, 0.096 and 0.131 mg/L, respectively. Hatching got delayed by 16.33 h for C. carpio (0.47 and 0.50 mg/L TCS) and C. idella (0.20 mg/L TCS) but by 18.07 h for L. rohita (0.15 mg/L TCS) and by 19.33 h for C. mrigala (0.18 mg/L TCS). Spine malformations, oedema (yolk sac and cardiac) and deflated swim bladder were present in 100% larvae of C. carpio, C. idella, L. rohita and C. mrigala at 0.30, 0.08, 0.13 and 0.14 mg/L TCS, respectively. TCS also caused hemorrhage (all but C. idella, only 3.33%), albinism and deformed caudal fin (C. idella), hypopigmentation and rupturing of yolk sac (C. mrigala), gas bubble disease (C. mrigala and L. rohita), fusion of eyes (C. carpio) and degeneration of digestive tract (L. rohita) in 10-40% hatchlings. Exposed hatchlings were very weak and paralyzed, could not swim and remained settled at the bottom of jars. Embryonic development was observed to be an early indicator of the toxicity of TCS as oedema and bubbles in yolk were observed in 40-100% embryos/hatchlings at 0.08 mg/L TCS while 100% mortality was observed between 0.15 and 0.50 mg/L TCS. L. rohita was most sensitive and C. carpio was least sensitive to the stress of TCS. Accumulation of TCS in the hatchlings (1/10 of TCS in water) after 96 h exposure hints that even small quantities of TCS may change species diversity in natural waters.