The great catastrophe: causes of the Permo-Triassic marine mass extinction.

The marine losses during the Permo-Triassic mass extinction were the worst ever experienced. All groups were badly affected, especially amongst the benthos (e.g. brachiopods, corals, bryozoans, foraminifers, ostracods). Planktonic populations underwent a fundamental change with eukaryotic algae being replaced by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, green-sulphur bacteria, sulphate-reducing bacteria and prasinophytes. Detailed studies of boundary sections, especially those in South China, have resolved the crisis to a ∼55 kyr interval straddling the Permo-Triassic boundary. Many of the losses occur at the beginning and end of this interval painting a picture of a two-phase extinction. Improved knowledge of the extinction has been supported by numerous geochemical studies that allow diverse proposed extinction mechanisms to be studied. A transition from oxygenated to anoxic-euxinic conditions is seen in most sections globally, although the intensity and timing shows regional variability. Decreased ocean ventilation coincides with rapidly rising temperatures and many extinction scenarios attribute the losses to both anoxia and high temperatures. Other kill mechanisms include ocean acidification for which there is conflicting support from geochemical proxies and, even less likely, siltation (burial under a massive influx of terrigenous sediment) which lacks substantive sedimentological evidence. The ultimate driver of the catastrophic changes at the end of the Permian was likely Siberian Trap eruptions and their associated carbon dioxide emissions with consequences such as warming, ocean stagnation and acidification. Volcanic winter episodes stemming from Siberian volcanism have also been linked to the crisis, but the short-term nature of these episodes (

The bumpy road of trauma-focused treatment: Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom exacerbation in people with psychosis.

Concern for symptom exacerbation and treatment drop-out is an important barrier to the implementation of trauma-focused therapy (TFT), especially in people with a psychotic disorder. This study, which was part of a multicenter randomized controlled trial, investigated posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom exacerbation during eye movement desensitization reprocessing (EMDR) therapy and prolonged exposure (PE) in a sample of 99 participants with PTSD and psychosis. Symptom exacerbations during the first four sessions (early exacerbation) and between-session exacerbations over the course of therapy were monitored using the PTSD Symptom Scale-Self Report. Analyses of covariance and chi-square tests were conducted to investigate exacerbation rates and their associations with treatment response and drop-out. Both early exacerbation and between-session exacerbation were relatively common (32.3% and 46.5%, respectively) but were unrelated to poor treatment response or an increased likelihood of treatment drop-out. Both clinicians and patients need to be aware that symptom exacerbation during TFT is common and not related to poor outcomes. Symptom exacerbation can be part of the therapeutic process, should be acknowledged and guided, and should not be a barrier to the implementation of TFT in people with psychosis.

Rapid marine oxygen variability: Driver of the Late Ordovician mass extinction.

The timing and connections between global cooling, marine redox conditions, and biotic turnover are underconstrained for the Late Ordovician. The second most severe mass extinction occurred at the end of the Ordovician period, resulting in ~85% loss of marine species between two extinction pulses. As the only "Big 5" extinction that occurred during icehouse conditions, this interval is an important modern analog to constrain environmental feedbacks. We present a previously unexplored thallium isotope records from two paleobasins that record global marine redox conditions and document two distinct and rapid excursions suggesting vacillating (de)oxygenation. The strong temporal link between these perturbations and extinctions highlights the possibility that dynamic marine oxygen fluctuations, rather than persistent, stable global anoxia, played a major role in driving the extinction. This evidence for rapid oxygen changes leading to mass extinction has important implications for modern deoxygenation and biodiversity declines.

Feasibility of EMDR for posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with personality disorders: a pilot study.

Background: Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are prevalent in patients with personality disorders. Despite the established efficacy of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) for PTSD, EMDR has barely been examined in patients with comorbid PTSD and personality disorders. Objective: The aim of this study was to explore what changes occur in symptom severity of PTSD, dissociative symptoms, insomnia, non-suicidal self-injurious behaviour and auditory verbal hallucinations in patients with personality disorders during treatment with EMDR. Method: This uncontrolled open feasibility study on EMDR for PTSD was an addition to treatment-as-usual for personality disorders. The outcome measures were the severity of PTSD symptoms, dissociation, insomnia, non-suicidal self-injury, and auditory verbal hallucinations. Results: Forty-seven participants (22 with a borderline personality disorder, 25 with other personality disorders) were included. A significant reduction in the severity of symptoms of PTSD, dissociation and insomnia was observed after EMDR treatment (median of four sessions), and 40% of the participants scored below the threshold for PTSD diagnosis. No differences in efficacy were found between patients with borderline personality disorder and other personality disorders. EMDR treatment was completed by 68% of the participants. Conclusions: The addition of EMDR techniques to treatment, as usual, may be beneficial in the treatment of PTSD in patients with personality disorders in order to reduce symptoms of PTSD, dissociation and insomnia. Although one-third of these patients did not complete the additional EMDR treatment, no severe complications (e.g. suicidal behaviour or hospitalisation) occurred. Controlled studies are needed to further investigate the validity of these findings.

Antecedentes: El trauma y el trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT) son prevalentes en pacientes con trastornos de personalidad. A pesar de la eficacia establecida de desensibilización y reprocesamiento por movimientos oculares (EMDR) para el trastorno por estrés postraumático, el EMDR apenas se ha examinado en pacientes con trastorno por estrés postraumático comórbido con trastornos de la personalidad.Objetivo: El objetivo de este estudio fue explorar qué cambios se producen en la gravedad de los síntomas del trastorno por estrés postraumático, los síntomas disociativos, el insomnio, las conductas autolesivas no suicidas y las alucinaciones verbales auditivas en pacientes con trastornos de la personalidad durante el tratamiento con EMDR.Método: En este estudio de factibilidad abierto no controlado de EMDR para el trastorno de estrés postraumático, EMDR fue agregado al tratamiento habitual para los trastornos de personalidad. Los resultados evaluados fueron la gravedad de los síntomas de trastorno de estrés postraumático, la disociación, el insomnio, la autolesión no suicida y las alucinaciones verbales auditivas.Resultados: Se incluyeron 47 participantes (22 con trastorno límite de la personalidad, 25 con otros trastornos de personalidad). Se observó una reducción significativa en la gravedad de los síntomas del trastorno de estrés postraumático, la disociación y el insomnio después del tratamiento con EMDR (mediana de cuatro sesiones), y el 40% de los participantes puntuaron por debajo del umbral para el diagnóstico de trastorno de estrés postraumático. No se encontraron diferencias en la eficacia entre los pacientes con trastorno límite de personalidad y otros trastornos de la personalidad. El tratamiento con EMDR fue completado por el 68% de los participantes.Conclusiones: La adición de técnicas EMDR al tratamiento habitual puede ser beneficiosa en el tratamiento del trastorno de estrés postraumático en pacientes con trastornos de personalidad para reducir los síntomas de trastorno de estrés postraumático, disociación e insomnio. Aunque un tercio de estos pacientes no completaron el tratamiento de EMDR adicional, no se presentaron complicaciones graves (por ejemplo, comportamiento suicida u hospitalización). Se requieren estudios controlados para investigar más a fondo la validez de estos hallazgos.

Health-economic benefits of treating trauma in psychosis.

Background: Co-occurrence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in psychosis (estimated as 12%) raises personal suffering and societal costs. Health-economic studies on PTSD treatments in patients with a diagnosis of a psychotic disorder have not yet been conducted, but are needed for guideline development and implementation. This study aims to analyse the cost-effectiveness of guideline PTSD therapies in patients with a psychotic disorder. Methods: This health-economic evaluation alongside a randomized controlled trial included 155 patients with a psychotic disorder in care as usual (CAU), with comorbid PTSD. Participants received eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) (n = 55), prolonged exposure (PE) (n = 53) or waiting list (WL) (n = 47) with masked assessments at baseline (T0) and at the two-month (post-treatment, T2) and six-month follow-up (T6). Costs were calculated using the TiC-P interview for assessing healthcare consumption and productivity losses. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios and economic acceptability were calculated for quality-adjusted life years (EQ-5D-3L-based QALYs) and PTSD 'Loss of diagnosis' (LoD, CAPS). Results: Compared to WL, costs were lower in EMDR (-€1410) and PE (-€501) per patient per six months. In addition, EMDR (robust SE 0.024, t = 2.14, p = .035) and PE (robust SE 0.024, t = 2.14, p = .035) yielded a 0.052 and 0.051 incremental QALY gain, respectively, as well as 26% greater probability for LoD following EMDR (robust SE = 0.096, z = 2.66, p = .008) and 22% following PE (robust SE 0.098, z = 2.28, p = .023). Acceptability curves indicate high probabilities of PTSD treatments being the better economic choice. Sensitivity analyses corroborated these outcomes. Conclusion: Adding PTSD treatment to CAU for individuals with psychosis and PTSD seem to yield better health and less PTSD at lower costs, which argues for implementation.

Antecedentes: La comorbilidad de TEPT en la psicosis (estimada en 12%) aumenta el sufrimiento personal y los costos para la sociedad. No se han realizado aún estudios de economía de la salud de los tratamientos de TEPT en pacientes con diagnóstico de un trastorno psicótico, pero son necesarios para el desarrollo e implementación de guías. Este estudio apunta a analizar la costo-efectividad de las terapias para TEPT con guías clínicas en pacientes con un trastorno psicótico.Métodos: Esta evaluación de economía de la salud asociada a un estudio randomizado controlado incluyó a 155 pacientes con un trastorno psicótico en cuidado habitual (CAU), con TEPT comórbido.Los pacientes recibieron terapia de reprocesamiento por movimientos oculares (EMDR, n=55), exposición prolongada (PE, n=53) o lista de espera (WL, n=47) con evaluaciones ciegas basal (T0), a los 2 meses (post-tratamiento, T2) y a los 6 meses de seguimiento (T6). Los costos fueron calculados usando la entrevista TiC-P para evaluar el consumo en los sistemas de salud y pérdidas de productividad. Las tasas incrementales de costo-efectividad y acepabilidad económica fueron calculadas por Años de Vida ajustados por calidad (QALY basado en EQ-5D-3L) y pérdida de diagnóstico de TEPT (LoD, CAPS)Resultados: En comparación a lista de espera, los costos fueron menores en EMDR (-€1410) y PE (-€501) por paciente por cada 6 meses. Además, EMDR (SE robusta 0.024, t=2.14, p=0.035) y PE (SE robusta 0.024, t=2.14, p=0.035) produjeron una ganancia incremental en QALY de 0.05 y una probabilidad 26% mayor de LoD luego de EMDR (SE robusta 0.096, z=2.66, p=0.008) y 22% luego de PE (SE robusta 0.098, z=2.28, p=0.023). Las curvas de aceptabilidad indican altas probabilidades de que los tratamientos para TEPT sean la mejor alternativa económica. Los análisis de sensibilidad corroboraron estos resultados.Conclusion: El agregar tratamiento para TEPT a los cuidados habituales en pacientes con psicosis y TEPT parece producir mejor salud y menos TEPT a menor costo, lo que aboga por su implementación.

Four-Year Cost-effectiveness of Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Preventing First-episode Psychosis: The Dutch Early Detection Intervention Evaluation (EDIE-NL) Trial.

Background: This study aims to evaluate the long-term cost-effectiveness of add-on cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) for the prevention of psychosis for individuals at ultrahigh risk (UHR) of psychosis. Method: The Dutch Early Detection and Intervention randomized controlled trial was used, comparing routine care (RC; n = 101) with routine care plus CBT for UHR (here called CBTuhr; n = 95). A cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted with treatment response (defined as proportion of averted transitions to psychosis) as an outcome and a cost-utility analysis with quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained as a secondary outcome. Results: The proportion of averted transitions to psychosis was significantly higher in the CBTuhr condition (with a risk difference of 0.122; b = 1.324, SEb = 0.017, z = 7.99, P < 0.001). CBTuhr showed an 83% probability of being more effective and less costly than RC by -US$ 5777 (savings) per participant. In addition, over the 4-year follow-up period, cumulative QALY health gains were marginally (but not significantly) higher in CBTuhr than for RC (2.63 vs. 2.46) and the CBTuhr intervention had a 75% probability of being the superior treatment (more QALY gains at lower costs) and a 92% probability of being cost-effective compared with RC at the Dutch threshold value (US$ 24 560; €20 000 per QALY). Conclusions: Add-on preventive CBTuhr had a high likelihood (83%) of resulting in more averted transitions to psychosis and lower costs as compared with RC. In addition, the intervention had a high likelihood (75%) of resulting in more QALY gains and lower costs as compared to RC.

The effect of childhood adversity on 4-year outcome in individuals at ultra high risk for psychosis in the Dutch Early Detection Intervention Evaluation (EDIE-NL) Trial.

Childhood adversity is associated with a range of mental disorders, functional impairment and higher health care costs in adulthood. In this study we evaluated if childhood adversity was predictive of adverse clinical and functional outcomes and health care costs in a sample of patients at ultra-high risk (UHR) for developing a psychosis. Structural Equation Modeling was used to examine the effect of childhood adversity on depression, anxiety, transition to psychosis and overall functioning at 4-year follow-up. In addition, we evaluated economic costs of childhood adversity in terms of health care use and productivity loss. Data pertain to 105 UHR participants of the Dutch Early Detection and Intervention Evaluation (EDIE-NL). Physical abuse was associated with higher depression rates (b=0.381, p=0.012) and lower social functional outcome (b=-0.219, p=0.017) at 4-year follow-up. In addition, emotional neglect was negatively associated with social functioning (b=-0.313, p=0.018). We did not find evidence that childhood adversity was associated with transition to psychosis, but the experience of childhood adversity was associated with excess health care costs at follow-up. The data indicate long-term negative effects of childhood adversity on depression, social functioning and health care costs at follow-up in a sample of UHR patients.

Exposing therapists to trauma-focused treatment in psychosis: effects on credibility, expected burden, and harm expectancies.

BACKGROUND: Despite robust empirical support for the efficacy of trauma-focused treatments, the dissemination proves difficult, especially in relation to patients with comorbid psychosis. Many therapists endorse negative beliefs about the credibility, burden, and harm of such treatment. OBJECTIVE: This feasibility study explores the impact of specialized training on therapists' beliefs about trauma-focused treatment within a randomized controlled trial. METHOD: Therapist-rated (n=16) credibility, expected burden, and harm expectancies of trauma-focused treatment were assessed at baseline, post-theoretical training, post-technical training, post-supervised practical training, and at 2-year follow-up. Credibility and burden beliefs of therapists concerning the treatment of every specific patient in the trial were also assessed. RESULTS: Over time, therapist-rated credibility of trauma-focused treatment showed a significant increase, whereas therapists' expected burden and harm expectancies decreased significantly. In treating posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in patients with psychotic disorders (n=79), pre-treatment symptom severity was not associated with therapist-rated credibility or expected burden of that specific treatment. Treatment outcome had no influence on patient-specific credibility or burden expectancies of therapists. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the notion that specialized training, including practical training with supervision, has long-term positive effects on therapists' credibility, burden, and harm beliefs concerning trauma-focused treatment.

Predicting trauma-focused treatment outcome in psychosis.

OBJECTIVE: Although TF treatments are effective in patients with psychosis, it is unknown whether specific psychosis-related obstacles limit the effects, and what determines good outcome. METHODS: Baseline posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity and seven psychosis-specific variables were tested as predictors in patients with a psychotic disorder and PTSD (n=108), who received eight sessions of TF treatment (Prolonged Exposure, or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing therapy) in a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Multiple regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Baseline PTSD symptom severity was significantly associated with posttreatment PTSD symptom severity, explaining 11.4% of the variance. Additionally, more severe PTSD at baseline was also significantly associated with greater PTSD symptom improvement during treatment. After correction for baseline PTSD symptom severity, the model with the seven baseline variables did not significantly explain the variance in posttreatment PTSD outcome. Within this non-significant model, the presence of auditory verbal hallucinations contributed uniquely to posttreatment outcome but explained little variance (5.4%). Treatment completers and dropouts showed no significant difference on any of the psychosis-related variables. CONCLUSIONS: Given the low predictive utility of baseline psychosis-related factors, we conclude that there is no evidence-based reason to exclude patients with psychotic disorders from TF treatments. Also, we speculate that patients with psychosis and severe baseline PTSD might derive more benefit if given more than eight sessions. Trial registration current controlled-trials.com | Identifier: ISRCTN79584912 | http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN79584912.

Four-Year Follow-up of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Persons at Ultra-High Risk for Developing Psychosis: The Dutch Early Detection Intervention Evaluation (EDIE-NL) Trial.

BACKGROUND: Previously, we demonstrated that cognitive behavior therapy for ultra-high risk (called CBTuhr) halved the incidence of psychosis over an 18-month period. Follow-up data from the same study are used to evaluate the longer-term effects at 4 years post-baseline. METHOD: The Dutch Early Detection and Intervention Evaluation study was a randomized controlled trial of 196 UHR patients comparing CBTuhr with treatment-as-usual (TAU) for comorbid disorders with TAU only. Of the original 196 patients, 113 consented to a 4-year follow-up (57.7%; CBTuhr = 56 vs TAU = 57). Over the study period, psychosis incidence, remission from UHR status, and the effects of transition to psychosis were evaluated. RESULTS: The number of participants in the CBTuhr group making the transition to psychosis increased from 10 at 18-month follow-up to 12 at 4-year follow-up whereas it did not change in the TAU group (n = 22); this still represents a clinically important (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 12/22 = 0.55) and significant effect (F(1,5) = 8.09, P = .03), favoring CBTuhr. The odds ratio of CBTuhr compared to TAU was 0.44 (95% CI: 0.24-0.82) and the number needed to treat was 8. Moreover, significantly more patients remitted from their UHR status in the CBTuhr group (76.3%) compared with the TAU group (58.7%) [t(120) = 2.08, P = .04]. Importantly, transition to psychosis was associated with more severe psychopathology and social functioning at 4-year follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: CBTuhr to prevent a first episode of psychosis in persons at UHR of developing psychosis is still effective at 4-year follow-up. Our data also show that individuals meeting the formal criteria of a psychotic disorder have worse functional and social outcomes compared with non-transitioned cases. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial is registered at Current Controlled Trials as trial number ISRCTN21353122 (http://controlled-trials.com/ISRCTN21353122/gaag).

Trauma-Focused Treatment in PTSD Patients With Psychosis: Symptom Exacerbation, Adverse Events, and Revictimization.

OBJECTIVES: Most clinicians refrain from trauma treatment for patients with psychosis because they fear symptom exacerbation and relapse. This study examined the negative side effects of trauma-focused (TF) treatment in patients with psychosis and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHODS: Analyses were conducted on data from a single-blind randomized controlled trial comparing TF treatment (N = 108; 8 sessions prolonged exposure or eye movement desensitization) and waiting list (WL; N = 47) among patients with a lifetime psychotic disorder and current chronic PTSD. Symptom exacerbation, adverse events, and revictimization were assessed posttreatment and at 6-month follow-up. Also investigated were symptom exacerbation after initiation of TF treatment and the relationship between symptom exacerbation and dropout. RESULTS: Any symptom exacerbation (PTSD, paranoia, or depression) tended to occur more frequently in the WL condition. After the first TF treatment session, PTSD symptom exacerbation was uncommon. There was no increase of hallucinations, dissociation, or suicidality during the first 2 sessions. Paranoia decreased significantly during this period. Dropout was not associated with symptom exacerbation. Compared with the WL condition, fewer persons in the TF treatment condition reported an adverse event (OR = 0.48, P = .032). Surprisingly, participants receiving TF treatment were significantly less likely to be revictimized (OR = 0.40, P = .035). CONCLUSIONS: In these participants, TF treatment did not result in symptom exacerbation or adverse events. Moreover, TF treatment was associated with significantly less exacerbation, less adverse events, and reduced revictimization compared with the WL condition. This suggests that conventional TF treatment protocols can be safely used in patients with psychosis without negative side effects.

Predictive validity of the Trauma Screening Questionnaire in detecting post-traumatic stress disorder in patients with psychotic disorders.

BACKGROUND: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is highly prevalent in patients with a psychotic disorder. Because a PTSD diagnosis is often missed in patients with psychosis in routine care, a valid screening instrument could be helpful. AIMS: To determine the validity of the Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ) as a screening tool for PTSD among individuals with psychotic disorders. METHOD: Among 2608 patients with a psychotic disorder, the rate of trauma exposure was determined and the TSQ was administered to screen for PTSD. PTSD status was verified in 455 patients using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (trial registration: ISRCTN 79584912). RESULTS: Trauma exposure was reported by 78.2% of the 2608 patients. PTSD prevalence was estimated at 16% (95% CI 14.6-17.4%) compared with 0.5% reported in the patients' clinical charts. A TSQ cut-off score of six predicted PTSD with 78.8% sensitivity, 75.6% specificity, 44.5% correct positives and 93.6% correct negatives. CONCLUSIONS: The TSQ seems to be a valid screening tool for PTSD in patients with a psychotic disorder.

Prolonged exposure vs eye movement desensitization and reprocessing vs waiting list for posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with a psychotic disorder: a randomized clinical trial.

IMPORTANCE: The efficacy of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) treatments in psychosis has not been examined in a randomized clinical trial to our knowledge. Psychosis is an exclusion criterion in most PTSD trials. OBJECTIVE: To examine the efficacy and safety of prolonged exposure (PE) therapy and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy in patients with psychotic disorders and comorbid PTSD. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A single-blind randomized clinical trial with 3 arms (N = 155), including PE therapy, EMDR therapy, and waiting list (WL) of 13 outpatient mental health services among patients with a lifetime psychotic disorder and current chronic PTSD. Baseline, posttreatment, and 6-month follow-up assessments were made. INTERVENTIONS: Participants were randomized to receive 8 weekly 90-minute sessions of PE (n = 53), EMDR (n = 55), or WL (n = 47). Standard protocols were used, and treatment was not preceded by stabilizing psychotherapeutic interventions. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Clinician-rated severity of PTSD symptoms, PTSD diagnosis, and full remission (on the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale) were primary outcomes. Self-reported PTSD symptoms and posttraumatic cognitions were secondary outcomes. RESULTS: Data were analyzed as intent to treat with linear mixed models and generalized estimating equations. Participants in the PE and EMDR conditions showed a greater reduction of PTSD symptoms than those in the WL condition. Between-group effect sizes were 0.78 (P < .001) in PE and 0.65 (P = .001) in EMDR. Participants in the PE condition (56.6%; odds ratio [OR], 3.41; P = .006) or the EMDR condition (60.0%; OR, 3.92; P < .001) were significantly more likely to achieve loss of diagnosis during treatment than those in the WL condition (27.7%). Participants in the PE condition (28.3%; OR, 5.79; P = .01), but not those in the EMDR condition (16.4%; OR, 2.87; P = .10), were more likely to gain full remission than those in the WL condition (6.4%). Treatment effects were maintained at the 6-month follow-up in PE and EMDR. Similar results were obtained regarding secondary outcomes. There were no differences in severe adverse events between conditions (2 in PE, 1 in EMDR, and 4 in WL). The PE therapy and EMDR therapy showed no difference in any of the outcomes and no difference in participant dropout (24.5% in PE and 20.0% in EMDR, P = .57). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Standard PE and EMDR protocols are effective, safe, and feasible in patients with PTSD and severe psychotic disorders, including current symptoms. A priori exclusion of individuals with psychosis from evidence-based PTSD treatments may not be justifiable. TRIAL REGISTRATION: isrctn.com Identifier: ISRCTN79584912.

A multi-site single blind clinical study to compare the effects of prolonged exposure, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing and waiting list on patients with a current diagnosis of psychosis and co morbid post traumatic stress disorder: study protocol for the randomized controlled trial Treating Trauma in Psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Trauma contributes to psychosis and in psychotic disorders post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is often a comorbid disorder. A problem is that PTSD is underdiagnosed and undertreated in people with psychotic disorders. This study's primary goal is to examine the efficacy and safety of prolonged exposure and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for PTSD in patients with both psychotic disorders and PTSD, as compared to a waiting list. Secondly, the effects of both treatments are determined on (a) symptoms of psychosis, in particular verbal hallucinations, (b) depression and social performance, and (c) economic costs. Thirdly, goals concern links between trauma exposure and psychotic symptomatology and the prevalence of exposure to traumatic events, and of PTSD. Fourthly predictors, moderators, and mediators for treatment success will be explored. These include cognitions and experiences concerning treatment harm, credibility and burden in both participants and therapists. METHODS/DESIGN: A short PTSD-screener assesses the possible presence of PTSD in adult patients (21- to 65- years old) with psychotic disorders, while the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale interview will be used for the diagnosis of current PTSD. The M.I.N.I. Plus interview will be used for diagnosing lifetime psychotic disorders and mood disorders with psychotic features. The purpose is to include consenting participants (N = 240) in a multi-site single blind randomized clinical trial. Patients will be allocated to one of three treatment conditions (N = 80 each): prolonged exposure or EMDR (both consisting of eight weekly sessions of 90 minutes each) or a six-month waiting list. All participants are subjected to blind assessments at pre-treatment, two months post treatment, and six months post treatment. In addition, participants in the experimental conditions will have assessments at mid treatment and at 12 months follow-up. DISCUSSION: The results from the post treatment measurement can be considered strong empirical indicators of the safety and effectiveness of prolonged exposure and EMDR. The six-month and twelve-month follow-up data have the potential of reliably providing documentation of the long-term effects of both treatments on the various outcome variables. Data from pre-treatment and midtreatment can be used to reveal possible pathways of change. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Trial registration: ISRCTN79584912.

Hypoxic and hypercapnic events in young infants during bed-sharing.

OBJECTIVES: To identify desaturation events (arterial oxygen saturation [Sao(2)] <90%) and rebreathing events (inspired carbon dioxide (CO(2)) >3%), in bed-sharing (BS) versus cot-sleeping (CS) infants. METHODS: Forty healthy, term infants, aged 0 to 6 months who regularly bed-shared with at least 1 parent >5 hours per night and 40 age-matched CS infants were recruited. Overnight parent and infant behavior (via infrared video), Sao(2), inspired CO(2) around the infant's face, and body temperature were recorded during sleep at home. RESULTS: Desaturation events were more common in BS infants (risk ratio = 2.17 [95% confidence interval: 1.75 to 2.69]), associated partly with the warmer microenvironment during BS. More than 70% of desaturations in both groups were preceded by central apnea of 5 to 10 seconds with no accompanying bradycardia, usually in active sleep. Apnea >15 seconds was rare (BS infants: 3 events; CS infants: 6 events), as was desaturation <80% (BS infants: 3 events; CS infants: 4 events). Eighty episodes of rebreathing were identified from 22 BS infants and 1 CS infant, almost all preceded by head covering. During rebreathing, Sao(2) was maintained at the baseline of 97.6%. CONCLUSIONS: BS infants experienced more oxygen desaturations preceded by central apnea, partly related to the warmer microenvironment. Rebreathing occurred mainly during bed-sharing. Infants were at low risk of sudden infant death syndrome and maintained normal oxygenation. The effect of repeated exposure to oxygen desaturation in vulnerable infants is unknown as is the ability of vulnerable infants to respond effectively to rebreathing caused by head covering.

Trauma, psychosis, post-traumatic stress disorder and the application of EMDR.

In this article we describe three interactions between trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and psychosis: 1. many patients with psychotic disorders suffered from traumatic life experiences that play an important role in the onset and content of their psychosis; 2. the experience of psychosis as well as its psychiatric treatment may result in post-traumatic stress symptoms; 3. if psychosis and PTSD occur simultaneously, there is a substantial risk for reciprocal negative reinforcement of both symptom groups as well as for potentially on going traumatization. Although these interactions are highly relevant from a clinical perspective, they usually remain unattended in routine care. The three interactions will be illustrated by a case history as well as an impression of the psychological treatment including EMDR. We recommend to pay attention to traumatization and comorbid PTSD in routine care for people with psychosis, as well as to offer them treatment.

Treating trauma in psychosis with EMDR: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Initial studies have shown that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be effectivelytreated in patients with a psychotic disorder. These studies however used adapted treatment protocols, avoided direct exposure to trauma related stimuli or preceded treatment with stabilizing techniques making treatment considerably longer in duration. METHOD: An open trial in which adult subjects with a psychotic disorder and a comorbid PTSD (n = 27) received a maximum of six Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy sessions. PTSD symptoms, psychotic symptoms and additional symptoms were assessed at baseline and end-of-treatment. RESULTS: The dropout rate was 18.5 percent (five subjects). Only five of the twenty-two completers (22.7%) still met criteria for PTSD after treatment. PTSD symptoms, auditory verbal hallucinations, delusions, anxiety, depression, and self-esteem all improved significantly. Paranoid ideation and feelings of hopelessness did not improve significantly. Treatment did not lead to symptom exacerbation in subjects. There were no adverse events, such as suicide attempts, self-mutilation, aggressive behavior or admission to a general or psychiatric hospital. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study shows that a short EMDR therapy is effective and safe in the treatment of PTSD in subjects with a psychotic disorder. Treatment of PTSD has a positive effect on auditory verbal hallucinations, delusions, anxiety symptoms, depression symptoms, and self-esteem. EMDR can be applied to this group of patients without adapting the treatment protocol or delaying treatment by preceding it with stabilizing interventions.

Devonian rise in atmospheric oxygen correlated to the radiations of terrestrial plants and large predatory fish.

The evolution of Earth's biota is intimately linked to the oxygenation of the oceans and atmosphere. We use the isotopic composition and concentration of molybdenum (Mo) in sedimentary rocks to explore this relationship. Our results indicate two episodes of global ocean oxygenation. The first coincides with the emergence of the Ediacaran fauna, including large, motile bilaterian animals, ca. 550-560 million year ago (Ma), reinforcing previous geochemical indications that Earth surface oxygenation facilitated this radiation. The second, perhaps larger, oxygenation took place around 400 Ma, well after the initial rise of animals and, therefore, suggesting that early metazoans evolved in a relatively low oxygen environment. This later oxygenation correlates with the diversification of vascular plants, which likely contributed to increased oxygenation through the enhanced burial of organic carbon in sediments. It also correlates with a pronounced radiation of large predatory fish, animals with high oxygen demand. We thereby couple the redox history of the atmosphere and oceans to major events in animal evolution.

Volcanism, mass extinction, and carbon isotope fluctuations in the Middle Permian of China.

The 260-million-year-old Emeishan volcanic province of southwest China overlies and is interbedded with Middle Permian carbonates that contain a record of the Guadalupian mass extinction. Sections in the region thus provide an opportunity to directly monitor the relative timing of extinction and volcanism within the same locations. These show that the onset of volcanism was marked by both large phreatomagmatic eruptions and extinctions amongst fusulinacean foraminifers and calcareous algae. The temporal coincidence of these two phenomena supports the idea of a cause-and-effect relationship. The crisis predates the onset of a major negative carbon isotope excursion that points to subsequent severe disturbance of the ocean-atmosphere carbon cycle.

Sleep arrangements and behavior of bed-sharing families in the home setting.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to provide a quantitative analysis of the sleep arrangements and behaviors of bed-sharing families to further understand the risks and benefits as well as the effects of infant age and room temperature on bed-sharing behaviors. METHODS: Forty infants who regularly bed shared with > or = 1 parent > or = 5 hours per night were recruited. Overnight video of the family and physiological monitoring of the infant was conducted in infants' homes. Infant sleep position, potential for exposure to expired air, head covering and uncovering, breastfeeding, movements, family sleep arrangements, responses to the infant, and interactions were logged. RESULTS: All infants slept with their mother. Fathers were included in 18 studies and siblings in 4. Infants usually slept beside the mother, separated from the father/siblings (if present), facing the mother, with head at mothers' breast level, touching, or with mother cradling. Median overnight breastfeeding duration was 40.5 minutes. Mothers commonly faced their infant, but infants were rarely in a position that potentially exposed them to maternal expired air. Fathers were seldom in contact with the infant during sleep. Of the 102 head-covering episodes observed in 22 infants, 80% were because of changes in adult sleep position. Sixty-eight percent of head uncovering was facilitated by the mother; half of these events were prompted by the infant. A 1 degree C increase in room temperature decreased infant head covering by 0.2 hours. CONCLUSIONS: The mother-infant relationship is of prime importance during bed sharing, whether the father is present or not. The focus around breastfeeding often dictates the sleep position of the infant and mother, though room temperature may also influence this. In colder rooms infants tend to spend more time with their face covered by bedding. Frequent maternal interactions rely on the ability of the mother to arouse with little stimulation. Mothers, perhaps impaired by alcohol, smoking, or overtiredness, may not be able to respond appropriately.