Mucin Production and Hydration Responses to Mucopurulent Materials in Normal versus Cystic Fibrosis Airway Epithelia.

RATIONALE: Cystic fibrosis (CF) airways disease produces a mucoobstructive lung phenotype characterized by airways mucus plugging, epithelial mucous cell metaplasia/hyperplasia, chronic infection, and inflammation. Simultaneous biochemical and functional in vivo studies of mucin synthesis and secretion from CF airways are not available. In vitro translational models may quantitate differential CF versus normal mucin and fluid secretory responses to infectious/inflammatory stimuli. OBJECTIVES: We tested the hypothesis that CF airways exhibit defective epithelial fluid, but not mucin, secretory responses to bacterial/inflammatory host products. METHODS: Well-differentiated primary human bronchial epithelial cultures were exposed to supernatant from mucopurulent material (SMM) from human CF airways as a test of bacterial/inflammatory host product stimulus. Human bronchial epithelia (HBE) with normal CF transmembrane conductance regulator function were compared with ΔF508/ΔF508 CF HBE. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Acute (up to 60 min) SMM exposure promoted mucin secretion, but mucins were degraded by the proteolytic enzymes present in SMM. Chronic SMM exposure induced upregulation of mucin synthesis and storage and generated absolute increases in basal and stimulated mucin release in normal and CF cultures. These responses were similar in normal and CF cultures. In contrast, SMM produced a coordinated CF transmembrane conductance regulator-mediated Cl- secretory response in normal HBE, but not in CF HBE. The absence of the fluid secretory response in CF produced quantitatively more dehydrated mucus. CONCLUSIONS: Our study reveals the interplay between regulation of mucin and fluid secretion rates in inflamed versus noninflamed conditions and why a hyperconcentrated mucus is produced in CF airways.

Airway Mucin Concentration as a Marker of Chronic Bronchitis.

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by chronic bronchitic and emphysematous components. In one biophysical model, the concentration of mucin on the airway surfaces is hypothesized to be a key variable that controls mucus transport in healthy persons versus cessation of transport in persons with muco-obstructive lung diseases. Under this model, it is postulated that a high mucin concentration produces the sputum and disease progression that are characteristic of chronic bronchitis. METHODS: We characterized the COPD status of 917 participants from the Subpopulations and Intermediate Outcome Measures in COPD Study (SPIROMICS) using questionnaires administered to participants, chest tomography, spirometry, and examination of induced sputum. Total mucin concentrations in sputum were measured with the use of size-exclusion chromatography and refractometry. In 148 of these participants, the respiratory secreted mucins MUC5AC and MUC5B were quantitated by means of mass spectrometry. Data from chronic-bronchitis questionnaires and data on total mucin concentrations in sputum were also analyzed in an independent 94-participant cohort. RESULTS: Mean (±SE) total mucin concentrations were higher in current or former smokers with severe COPD than in controls who had never smoked (3166±402 vs. 1515±152 µg per milliliter) and were higher in participants with two or more respiratory exacerbations per year than in those with zero exacerbations (4194±878 vs. 2458±113 µg per milliliter). The absolute concentrations of MUC5B and MUC5AC in current or former smokers with severe COPD were approximately 3 times as high and 10 times as high, respectively, as in controls who had never smoked. Receiver-operating-characteristic curve analysis of the association between total mucin concentration and a diagnosis of chronic bronchitis yielded areas under the curve of 0.72 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.65 to 0.79) for the SPIROMICS cohort and 0.82 (95% CI, 0.73 to 0.92) for the independent cohort. CONCLUSIONS: Airway mucin concentrations may quantitate a key component of the chronic bronchitis pathophysiologic cascade that produces sputum and mediates disease severity. Studies designed to explore total mucin concentrations in sputum as a diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target for chronic bronchitis appear to be warranted. (Funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and others.).

Defective postsecretory maturation of MUC5B mucin in cystic fibrosis airways.

In cystic fibrosis (CF), airway mucus becomes thick and viscous, and its clearance from the airways is impaired. The gel-forming mucins undergo an ordered "unpacking/maturation" process after granular release that requires an optimum postsecretory environment, including hydration and pH. We hypothesized that this unpacking process is compromised in the CF lung due to abnormal transepithelial fluid transport that reduces airway surface hydration and alters ionic composition. Using human tracheobronchial epithelial cells derived from non-CF and CF donors and mucus samples from human subjects and domestic pigs, we investigated the process of postsecretory mucin unfolding/maturation, how these processes are defective in CF airways, and the probable mechanism underlying defective unfolding. First, we found that mucins released into a normal lung environment transform from a compact granular form to a linear form. Second, we demonstrated that this maturation process is defective in the CF airway environment. Finally, we demonstrated that independent of HCO3- and pH levels, airway surface dehydration was the major determinant of this abnormal unfolding process. This defective unfolding/maturation process after granular release suggests that the CF extracellular environment is ion/water depleted and likely contributes to abnormal mucus properties in CF airways prior to infection and inflammation.

Biosynthesis of the polymeric gel-forming mucin MUC5B.

MUC5B is a major polymeric mucin in the airway mucus gel and is an essential component of innate defense of the respiratory epithelium. Knowledge of the synthesis and intracellular processing of MUC5B is incomplete. We investigated the molecular details of MUC5B assembly in primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) grown at an air-liquid interface (ALI). Electrophoretic and centrifugal separations of intracellular forms of MUC5B probed with antibodies specific for non-O-glycosylated and O-glycosylated forms of the mucin identified three major intracellular populations of MUC5B (non-O-glycosylated monomer and dimer, and O-glycosylated polymers). Biophysical analysis of recombinant MUC5B COOH-terminus (CT5B; D4-B-C-CK) expressed in 293-EBNA cells showed that MUC5B dimerizes by disulfide linkage. Pulse-chase studies in the HBEC ALI cultures showed that non-O-glycosylated MUC5B was synthesized within 20 min of metabolic labeling and O-glycosylated, polymeric mucin within 2 h. Radiolabeled O-glycosylated mucin polymers were secreted within 2 h and the majority were released by 48 h. These data indicate that MUC5B follows a similar assembly to the related glycoprotein, von Willebrand factor (vWF); however, unlike vWF the MUC5B polypeptide shows no evidence of major proteolytic processing of D-domains during the production of the mature secreted polymeric mucin in normal and cystic fibrosis (CF) primary bronchial epithelial cells. In contrast, MUC5B D-domains were modified by neutrophil elastase, a protease commonly found in CF sputum, demonstrating that proteolytic degradation of MUC5B is an extracellular event in CF sputum. These results define the pathway for synthesis of MUC5B in primary human goblet cells.

SNAP23 is selectively expressed in airway secretory cells and mediates baseline and stimulated mucin secretion.

Airway mucin secretion is important pathophysiologically and as a model of polarized epithelial regulated exocytosis. We find the trafficking protein, SNAP23 (23-kDa paralogue of synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa), selectively expressed in secretory cells compared with ciliated and basal cells of airway epithelium by immunohistochemistry and FACS, suggesting that SNAP23 functions in regulated but not constitutive epithelial secretion. Heterozygous SNAP23 deletant mutant mice show spontaneous accumulation of intracellular mucin, indicating a defect in baseline secretion. However mucins are released from perfused tracheas of mutant and wild-type (WT) mice at the same rate, suggesting that increased intracellular stores balance reduced release efficiency to yield a fully compensated baseline steady state. In contrast, acute stimulated release of intracellular mucin from mutant mice is impaired whether measured by a static imaging assay 5 min after exposure to the secretagogue ATP or by kinetic analysis of mucins released from perfused tracheas during the first 10 min of ATP exposure. Together, these data indicate that increased intracellular stores cannot fully compensate for the defect in release efficiency during intense stimulation. The lungs of mutant mice develop normally and clear bacteria and instilled polystyrene beads comparable to WT mice, consistent with these functions depending on baseline secretion that is fully compensated.

Baseline Goblet Cell Mucin Secretion in the Airways Exceeds Stimulated Secretion over Extended Time Periods, and Is Sensitive to Shear Stress and Intracellular Mucin Stores.

Airway mucin secretion studies have focused on goblet cell responses to exogenous agonists almost to the exclusion of baseline mucin secretion (BLMS). In human bronchial epithelial cell cultures (HBECCs), maximal agonist-stimulated secretion exceeds baseline by ~3-fold as measured over hour-long periods, but mucin stores are discharged completely and require 24 h for full restoration. Hence, over 24 h, total baseline exceeds agonist-induced secretion by several-fold. Studies with HBECCs and mouse tracheas showed that BLMS is highly sensitive to mechanical stresses. Harvesting three consecutive 1 h baseline luminal incubations with HBECCs yielded equal rates of BLMS; however, lengthening the middle period to 72 h decreased the respective rate significantly, suggesting a stimulation of BLMS by the gentle washes of HBECC luminal surfaces. BLMS declined exponentially after washing HBECCs (t1/2 = 2.75 h), to rates approaching zero. HBECCs exposed to low perfusion rates exhibited spike-like increases in BLMS when flow was jumped 5-fold: BLMS increased >4 fold, then decreased within 5 min to a stable plateau at 1.5-2-fold over control. Higher flow jumps induced proportionally higher BLMS increases. Inducing mucous hyperplasia in HBECCs increased mucin production, BLMS and agonist-induced secretion. Mouse tracheal BLMS was ~6-fold higher during perfusion, than when flow was stopped. Munc13-2 null mouse tracheas, with their defect of accumulated cellular mucins, exhibited similar BLMS as WT, contrary to predictions of lower values. Graded mucous metaplasia induced in WT and Munc13-2 null tracheas with IL-13, caused proportional increases in BLMS, suggesting that naïve Munc13-2 mouse BLMS is elevated by increased mucin stores. We conclude that BLMS is, [i] a major component of mucin secretion in the lung, [ii] sustained by the mechanical activity of a dynamic lung, [iii] proportional to levels of mucin stores, and [iv] regulated differentially from agonist-induced mucin secretion.

The Relationship of Mucus Concentration (Hydration) to Mucus Osmotic Pressure and Transport in Chronic Bronchitis.

RATIONALE: Chronic bronchitis (CB) is characterized by persistent cough and sputum production. Studies were performed to test whether mucus hyperconcentration and increased partial osmotic pressure, in part caused by abnormal purine nucleotide regulation of ion transport, contribute to the pathogenesis of CB. OBJECTIVES: We tested the hypothesis that CB is characterized by mucus hyperconcentration, increased mucus partial osmotic pressures, and reduced mucus clearance. METHODS: We measured in subjects with CB as compared with normal and asymptomatic smoking control subjects indices of mucus concentration (hydration; i.e., percentage solids) and sputum adenine nucleotide/nucleoside concentrations. In addition, sputum partial osmotic pressures and mucus transport rates were measured in subjects with CB. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: CB secretions were hyperconcentrated as indexed by an increase in percentage solids and total mucins, in part reflecting decreased extracellular nucleotide/nucleoside concentrations. CB mucus generated concentration-dependent increases in partial osmotic pressures into ranges predicted to reduce mucus transport. Mucociliary clearance (MCC) in subjects with CB was negatively correlated with mucus concentration (percentage solids). As a test of relationships between mucus concentration and disease, mucus concentrations and MCC were compared with FEV1, and both were significantly correlated. CONCLUSIONS: Abnormal regulation of airway surface hydration may slow MCC in CB and contribute to disease pathogenesis.

Sperm-associated antigen 6 (SPAG6) deficiency and defects in ciliogenesis and cilia function: polarity, density, and beat.

SPAG6, an axoneme central apparatus protein, is essential for function of ependymal cell cilia and sperm flagella. A significant number of Spag6-deficient mice die with hydrocephalus, and surviving males are sterile because of sperm motility defects. In further exploring the ciliary dysfunction in Spag6-null mice, we discovered that cilia beat frequency was significantly reduced in tracheal epithelial cells, and that the beat was not synchronized. There was also a significant reduction in cilia density in both brain ependymal and trachea epithelial cells, and cilia arrays were disorganized. The orientation of basal feet, which determines the direction of axoneme orientation, was apparently random in Spag6-deficient mice, and there were reduced numbers of basal feet, consistent with reduced cilia density. The polarized epithelial cell morphology and distribution of intracellular mucin, α-tubulin, and the planar cell polarity protein, Vangl2, were lost in Spag6-deficient tracheal epithelial cells. Polarized epithelial cell morphology and polarized distribution of α-tubulin in tracheal epithelial cells was observed in one-week old wild-type mice, but not in the Spag6-deficient mice of the same age. Thus, the cilia and polarity defects appear prior to 7 days post-partum. These findings suggest that SPAG6 not only regulates cilia/flagellar motility, but that in its absence, ciliogenesis, axoneme orientation, and tracheal epithelial cell polarity are altered.

Localization of Burkholderia cepacia complex bacteria in cystic fibrosis lungs and interactions with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in hypoxic mucus.

The localization of Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) bacteria in cystic fibrosis (CF) lungs, alone or during coinfection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is poorly understood. We performed immunohistochemistry for Bcc and P. aeruginosa bacteria on 21 coinfected or singly infected CF lungs obtained at transplantation or autopsy. Parallel in vitro experiments examined the growth of two Bcc species, Burkholderia cenocepacia and Burkholderia multivorans, in environments similar to those occupied by P. aeruginosa in the CF lung. Bcc bacteria were predominantly identified in the CF lung as single cells or small clusters within phagocytes and mucus but not as "biofilm-like structures." In contrast, P. aeruginosa was identified in biofilm-like masses, but densities appeared to be reduced during coinfection with Bcc bacteria. Based on chemical analyses of CF and non-CF respiratory secretions, a test medium was defined to study Bcc growth and interactions with P. aeruginosa in an environment mimicking the CF lung. When test medium was supplemented with alternative electron acceptors under anaerobic conditions, B. cenocepacia and B. multivorans used fermentation rather than anaerobic respiration to gain energy, consistent with the identification of fermentation products by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Both Bcc species also expressed mucinases that produced carbon sources from mucins for growth. In the presence of P. aeruginosa in vitro, both Bcc species grew anaerobically but not aerobically. We propose that Bcc bacteria (i) invade a P. aeruginosa-infected CF lung when the airway lumen is anaerobic, (ii) inhibit P. aeruginosa biofilm-like growth, and (iii) expand the host bacterial niche from mucus to also include macrophages.

Cystic fibrosis airway secretions exhibit mucin hyperconcentration and increased osmotic pressure.

The pathogenesis of mucoinfective lung disease in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients likely involves poor mucus clearance. A recent model of mucus clearance predicts that mucus flow depends on the relative mucin concentration of the mucus layer compared with that of the periciliary layer; however, mucin concentrations have been difficult to measure in CF secretions. Here, we have shown that the concentration of mucin in CF sputum is low when measured by immunologically based techniques, and mass spectrometric analyses of CF mucins revealed mucin cleavage at antibody recognition sites. Using physical size exclusion chromatography/differential refractometry (SEC/dRI) techniques, we determined that mucin concentrations in CF secretions were higher than those in normal secretions. Measurements of partial osmotic pressures revealed that the partial osmotic pressure of CF sputum and the retained mucus in excised CF lungs were substantially greater than the partial osmotic pressure of normal secretions. Our data reveal that mucin concentration cannot be accurately measured immunologically in proteolytically active CF secretions; mucins are hyperconcentrated in CF secretions; and CF secretion osmotic pressures predict mucus layer-dependent osmotic compression of the periciliary liquid layer in CF lungs. Consequently, mucin hypersecretion likely produces mucus stasis, which contributes to key infectious and inflammatory components of CF lung disease.

Role of MARCKS in regulated secretion from mast cells and airway goblet cells.

MARCKS (myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate) is postulated to regulate the passage of secretory granules through cortical actin in the early phase of exocytosis. There are, however, three proposed mechanisms of action, all of which were derived from studies using synthetic peptides representing either the central phosphorylation site domain or the upstream, NH2-terminal domain: it tethers actin to the plasma membrane and/or to secretory granules, and/or it sequesters PIP2. Using MARCKS-null mice, we probed for a loss of function secretory phenotype in mast cells harvested from embryonic livers and maturated in vivo [embryonic hepatic-derived mast cells (eHMCs)]. Both wild-type (WT) and MARCKS-null eHMCs exhibited full exocytic responses upon FcϵRI receptor activation with DNP-BSA (2,4-dinitrophenyl-BSA), whether they were in suspension or adherent. The secretory responses of MARCKS-null eHMCs were consistently higher than those of WT cells, but the differences had sporadic statistical significance. The MARCKS-null cells exhibited faster secretory kinetics, however, achieving the plateau phase of the response with a t½ ∼2.5-fold faster. Hence, MARCKS appears to be a nonessential regulatory protein in mast cell exocytosis but exerts a negative modulation. Surprisingly, the MARCKS NH2-terminal peptide, MANS, which has been reported to inhibit mucin secretion from airway goblet cells (Li Y, Martin LD, Spizz G, Adler KB. J Biol Chem 276: 40982-40990, 2001), inhibited hexosaminidase secretion from WT and MARCKS-null eHMCs, leading us to reexamine its effects on mucin secretion. Results from studies using peptide inhibitors with human bronchial epithelial cells and with binding assays using purified mucins suggested that MANS inhibited the mucin binding assay, rather than the secretory response.

Assembly of the respiratory mucin MUC5B: a new model for a gel-forming mucin.

Mucins are essential components in mucus gels that form protective barriers at all epithelial surfaces, but much remains unknown about their assembly, intragranular organization, and post-secretion unfurling to form mucus. MUC5B is a major polymeric mucin expressed by respiratory epithelia, and we investigated the molecular mechanisms involved during its assembly. Studies of intact polymeric MUC5B revealed a single high affinity calcium-binding site, distinct from multiple low affinity sites on each MUC5B monomer. Self-diffusion studies with intact MUC5B showed that calcium binding at the protein site catalyzed reversible cross-links between MUC5B chains to form networks. The site of cross-linking was identified in the MUC5B D3-domain as it was specifically blocked by D3 peptide antibodies. Biophysical analysis and single particle EM of recombinant MUC5B N terminus (D1D2D'D3; NT5B) and subdomains (D1, D1-D2, D2-D'-D3, and D3) generated structural models of monomers and disulfide-linked dimers and suggested that MUC5B multimerizes by disulfide linkage between D3-domains to form linear polymer chains. Moreover, these analyses revealed reversible homotypic interactions of NT5B at low pH and in high calcium, between disulfide-linked NT5B dimers, but not monomers. These results enable a model of MUC5B to be derived, which predicts mechanisms of mucin intracellular assembly and storage, which may be common to the other major gel-forming polymeric mucins.

Muc5b is required for airway defence.

Respiratory surfaces are exposed to billions of particulates and pathogens daily. A protective mucus barrier traps and eliminates them through mucociliary clearance (MCC). However, excessive mucus contributes to transient respiratory infections and to the pathogenesis of numerous respiratory diseases. MUC5AC and MUC5B are evolutionarily conserved genes that encode structurally related mucin glycoproteins, the principal macromolecules in airway mucus. Genetic variants are linked to diverse lung diseases, but specific roles for MUC5AC and MUC5B in MCC, and the lasting effects of their inhibition, are unknown. Here we show that mouse Muc5b (but not Muc5ac) is required for MCC, for controlling infections in the airways and middle ear, and for maintaining immune homeostasis in mouse lungs, whereas Muc5ac is dispensable. Muc5b deficiency caused materials to accumulate in upper and lower airways. This defect led to chronic infection by multiple bacterial species, including Staphylococcus aureus, and to inflammation that failed to resolve normally. Apoptotic macrophages accumulated, phagocytosis was impaired, and interleukin-23 (IL-23) production was reduced in Muc5b(-/-) mice. By contrast, in mice that transgenically overexpress Muc5b, macrophage functions improved. Existing dogma defines mucous phenotypes in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) as driven by increased MUC5AC, with MUC5B levels either unaffected or increased in expectorated sputum. However, in many patients, MUC5B production at airway surfaces decreases by as much as 90%. By distinguishing a specific role for Muc5b in MCC, and by determining its impact on bacterial infections and inflammation in mice, our results provide a refined framework for designing targeted therapies to control mucin secretion and restore MCC.

Human airway ciliary dynamics.

Airway cilia depend on precise changes in shape to transport the mucus gel overlying mucosal surfaces. The ciliary motion can be recorded in several planes using video microscopy. However, cilia are densely packed, and automated computerized systems are not available to convert these ciliary shape changes into forms that are useful for testing theoretical models of ciliary function. We developed a system for converting planar ciliary motions recorded by video microscopy into an empirical quantitative model, which is easy to use in validating mathematical models, or in examining ciliary function, e.g., in primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD). The system we developed allows the manipulation of a model cilium superimposed over a video of beating cilia. Data were analyzed to determine shear angles and velocity vectors of points along the cilium. Extracted waveforms were used to construct a composite waveform, which could be used as a standard. Variability was measured as the mean difference in position of points on individual waveforms and the standard. The shapes analyzed were the end-recovery, end-effective, and fastest moving effective and recovery with mean (± SE) differences of 0.31(0.04), 0.25(0.06), 0.50(0.12), 0.50(0.10), µm, respectively. In contrast, the same measures for three different PCD waveforms had values far outside this range.

CFTR, mucins, and mucus obstruction in cystic fibrosis.

Mucus pathology in cystic fibrosis (CF) has been known for as long as the disease has been recognized and is sometimes called mucoviscidosis. The disease is marked by mucus hyperproduction and plugging in many organs, which are usually most fatal in the airways of CF patients, once the problem of meconium ileus at birth is resolved. After the CF gene, CFTR, was cloned and its protein product identified as a cAMP-regulated Cl(-) channel, causal mechanisms underlying the strong mucus phenotype of the disease became obscure. Here we focus on mucin genes and polymeric mucin glycoproteins, examining their regulation and potential relationships to a dysfunctional cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Detailed examination of CFTR expression in organs and different cell types indicates that changes in CFTR expression do not always correlate with the severity of CF disease or mucus accumulation. Thus, the mucus hyperproduction that typifies CF does not appear to be a direct cause of a defective CFTR but, rather, to be a downstream consequence. In organs like the lung, up-regulation of mucin gene expression by inflammation results from chronic infection; however, in other instances and organs, the inflammation may have a non-infectious origin. The mucus plugging phenotype of the ß-subunit of the epithelial Na(+) channel (ßENaC)-overexpressing mouse is proving to be an archetypal example of this kind of inflammation, with a dehydrated airway surface/concentrated mucus gel apparently providing the inflammatory stimulus. Data indicate that the luminal HCO(3)(-) deficiency recently described for CF epithelia may also provide such a stimulus, perhaps by causing a mal-maturation of mucins as they are released onto luminal surfaces. In any event, the path between CFTR dysfunction and mucus hyperproduction has proven tortuous, and its unraveling continues to offer its own twists and turns, along with fascinating glimpses into biology.

Studying mucin secretion from human bronchial epithelial cell primary cultures.

Mucin secretion is regulated by extracellular signaling molecules emanating from local, neuronal, or endocrine sources. Quantifying the rate of this secretion is important to understanding how the exocytic process is regulated, and also how goblet/mucous cells synthesize and release mucins under control and pathological conditions. Consequently, measuring mucins in a quantitatively accurate manner is the key to many experiments addressing these issues. This paper describes procedures used to determine agonist-induced mucin secretion from goblet cells in human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cell cultures. It begins with primary epithelial cell culture, offers methods for purifying MUC5AC and MUC5B mucins for standards, and describes five different microtiter plate binding assays which use various probes for mucins. A polymeric mucin-specific antibody is used in standard and sandwich ELISA formats for two assays while the others target the extensive glycosylated domains of mucins with lectin, periodate oxidation, and antibody-based probes. Comparing the data derived from the different assays applied to the same set of samples of HBE cell cultures indicates a qualitative agreement between baseline and agonist stimulated mucin release; however, the polymeric mucin-specific assays yield substantially lower values than the assays using non-specific molecular reporters. These results indicate that the more nonspecific assays are suitable to assess overall secretory responses by goblet cells, but are likely unsuited for specific measurements of polymeric mucins, per se.

Nucleotide-mediated airway clearance.

A thin layer of airway surface liquid (ASL) lines the entire surface of the lung and is the first point of contact between the lung and the environment. Surfactants contained within this layer are secreted in the alveolar region and are required to maintain a low surface tension and to prevent alveolar collapse. Mucins are secreted into the ASL throughout the respiratory tract and serve to intercept inhaled pathogens, allergens and toxins. Their removal by mucociliary clearance (MCC) is facilitated by cilia beating and hydration of the ASL by active ion transport. Throughout the lung, secretion, ion transport and cilia beating are under purinergic control. Pulmonary epithelia release ATP into the ASL which acts in an autocrine fashion on P2Y(2) (ATP) receptors. The enzymatic network describes in Chap. 2 then mounts a secondary wave of signaling by surface conversion of ATP into adenosine (ADO), which induces A(2B) (ADO) receptor-mediated responses. This chapter offers a comprehensive description of MCC and the extensive ramifications of the purinergic signaling network on pulmonary surfaces.

Mucociliary interactions and mucus dynamics in ciliated human bronchial epithelial cell cultures.

The airway epithelial surface liquid is generally considered to be composed of two layers, a periciliary layer and a continuous thick mucus layer moving in bulk. This view may not be appropriate for all areas of the lung. Our hypothesis, that mucus may form a discontinuous layer with dynamic attachments to the surface, is investigated using a culture system. We used live-cell confocal microscopy to investigate thin mucus layers and fluorescent beads and exogenous MUC5B to visualize mucus dynamics on ciliated human bronchial cultures. A continuous mucus layer was not observed. In sparsely ciliated cultures, mucus attached to ciliated cells; however, in highly ciliated cultures, mucus formed strands several hundred micrometers long. As with increases in ciliation, increases in bead concentration caused the appearance of mucus strands. We confirmed the involvement of mucins in the binding of mucus to cilia by adding labeled purified MUC5B to the cultures. These data suggest that mucins may have an intrinsic ability to form attachments to cilia. The significance of these findings is that aberrant modulation of such an intrinsic property may explain the initiation of highly adherent mucus in cystic fibrosis lung disease.

Coupled nucleotide and mucin hypersecretion from goblet-cell metaplastic human airway epithelium.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its metabolite adenosine regulate airway mucociliary clearance via activation of purinoceptors. In this study, we investigated the contribution of goblet cells to airway epithelial ATP release. Primary human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cultures, typically dominated by ciliated cells, were induced to develop goblet cell metaplasia by infection with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or treatment with IL-13. Under resting conditions, goblet-cell metaplastic cultures displayed enhanced mucin secretion accompanied by increased rates of ATP release and mucosal surface adenosine accumulation as compared with nonmetaplastic control HBE cultures. Intracellular calcium chelation [1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid tetraacetoxymethyl ester] or disruption of the secretory pathways (nocodazole, brefeldin A, and N-ethylmaleimide) decreased mucin secretion and ATP release in goblet-cell metaplastic HBE cultures. Conversely, stimuli that triggered calcium-regulated mucin secretion (e.g., ionomycin or UTP) increased luminal ATP release and adenyl purine accumulation in control and goblet-cell metaplastic HBE cultures. Goblet cell-associated ATP release was not blocked by the connexin/pannexin hemichannel inhibitor carbenoxolone, suggesting direct nucleotide release from goblet cell vesicles rather than the hemichannel insertion. Collectively, our data demonstrate that nucleotide release is increased by goblet cell metaplasia, reflecting, at least in part, a mechanism tightly associated with goblet cell mucin secretion. Increased goblet cell nucleotide release and resultant adenosine accumulation provide compensatory mechanisms to hydrate mucins by paracrine stimulation of ciliated cell ion and water secretion and maintain mucociliary clearance, and to modulate inflammatory responses.

Force generation and dynamics of individual cilia under external loading.

Motile cilia are unique multimotor systems that display coordination and periodicity while imparting forces to biological fluids. They play important roles in normal physiology, and ciliopathies are implicated in a growing number of human diseases. In this work we measure the response of individual human airway cilia to calibrated forces transmitted via spot-labeled magnetic microbeads. Cilia respond to applied forces by 1), a reduction in beat amplitude (up to an 85% reduction by 160-170 pN of force); 2), a decreased tip velocity proportionate to applied force; and 3), no significant change in beat frequency. Tip velocity reduction occurred in each beat direction, independently of the direction of applied force, indicating that the cilium is "driven" in both directions at all times. By applying a quasistatic force model, we deduce that axoneme stiffness is dominated by the rigidity of the microtubules, and that cilia can exert 62 +/- 18 pN of force at the tip via the generation of 5.6 +/- 1.6 pN/dynein head.