A mixed-methods exploration of autonomy-supportive parenting, confidence, and natural mentoring relationships among Black adolescents.

The current study examined whether autonomy-supportive parenting practices may be associated with Black adolescents' quantity of natural mentors (i.e., adults from youths' everyday lives who youth go to for support and guidance) via adolescents' confidence. This study employed survey data from 216 Black youth and qualitative interviews from a subsample of youth (n = 25), their primary caregivers (n = 25), and one nonparental adult relative with whom the youth reported feeling close (n = 25). Comparative analyses were then completed among a subset of 10 family triads corresponding to youth from the qualitative subsample who had the highest (n = 5) and the lowest (n = 5) scores on a survey measure of adolescents' confidence. Study findings suggest that Black adolescents' confidence may be an explanatory link in the association between autonomy-supportive parenting practices among primary caregivers and Black adolescents' quantity of natural mentoring relationships. Moreover, we found that a range of autonomy-supportive parenting practices may be associated with youth confidence, which may, in turn, inform how Black adolescents engage with adults in their social networks.

"It's going to help me in life": Forms, sources, and functions of social support for youth in natural mentoring relationships.

Social support is associated with positive physical and psychological health outcomes for youth. We took a qualitative approach to examine the sources, forms, and functions of social support youth receive from natural mentoring relationships in their lives. Based on in-depth interviews with 40 adolescents participating in a study of youth-adult relationships and natural mentoring processes, we found that (1) different types of adults had the capacity to provide different types of support and were likely to provide overlapping supports; (2) emotional, informational, and instrumental support qualitatively differed depending on the adult's role (e.g., teacher), while companionship and validation were consistent across adults; and (3) youth were able to identify benefits attached to the social support received from adults. Our findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of aspects and characteristics of effective youth-adult mentoring processes and call for fuller assessments of social support in youths' lives so we may better meet their developmental needs.

Understanding afterschool engagement: Investigating developmental outcomes for adolescents.

Though student engagement is hypothesized to be a factor in explaining student level differences in afterschool programs, the measurement of student engagement in this context is inconsistent, and findings from the small number of studies about how engagement impacts developmental and academic outcomes are mixed. In this study, we tested the factor structure of Wang and colleagues' school engagement scale with a sample of middle school students (N = 197) who attended an afterschool program in an urban setting. Results suggest that a bifactor model of engagement best fits the data, meaning that engagement consists of four specific factors (affective, behavioral, cognitive, social) and a global factor. We then used structural equation modeling to examine the relationship between engagement, academic outcomes, and positive youth development (PYD). Results also showed positive associations with student mathematics achievement and PYD, but no significant associations were found between engagement and English achievement. This study provides a theoretically aligned way to measure engagement and evidence to support engagement as a key factor in predicting youth outcomes in an out-of-school context.

Broadening the perspective on youth's systems of support: An ecological examination of supportive peer and adult relationships during adolescence.

This study applies the theory of positive youth development (Lerner et al., 2010) and the youth systems framework (Varga & Zaff, 2018) to the examination of supportive peer and adult relationships across multiple contexts in which youth develop. Results of egocentric social network analysis indicated that high school-aged youth nominated significantly more adults than middle school-aged youth. Peers and adults both acted as important sources of support, although often the types of support they offer differ. Outdegree centrality of peers was a significant predictor of character. The size of a participant's youth system, measured as the number of contexts accessed, along with average closeness in adult relationships, was a significant predictor of contribution. Thematic analysis of interview data identified four themes, aligned with the five actions of developmental relationships, as contributing factors to youth-adult closeness and youth perceptions of support (Pekel et al., 2018). Implications for youth-adult relationships are discussed.

Mentees and their mothers: The association between maternal relationship difficulties and targeted outcomes of mentoring.

Maternal relationship characteristics have been found to impact academic and behavioral outcomes for youth. However, less is known about how and through what mechanisms these characteristics impact outcomes for mentored youth. In this study, we examined if mentoring relationship quality mediated the relations between maternal relationship characteristics and academic and behavioral outcomes targeted by mentoring programs. Data were drawn from 205 participants who participated in a mentoring program that pairs adolescent girls with college women mentors for 1 year of mentoring. Mentoring relationship quality was the hypothesized mechanism of change and was included in the analysis as a mediator. Results revealed that maternal relationship characteristics (i.e., maternal quality communication/trust and maternal alienation) were directly related to academic and behavioral outcomes of mentoring. The relationship between maternal relationship characteristics and behavioral outcomes was mediated by mentoring relationship quality. Results suggested that girls with stronger maternal quality communication and trust as well as girls who felt more alienated from their mothers may benefit more from mentoring. Results can be used to inform mentor training to include a focus on relationship development with girls experiencing a variety of relational difficulties with their mothers to help improve targeted mentoring outcomes.

Dyadic connections in the context of group mentoring: A social network approach.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to examine how relational ties among all participants in a group mentoring program related to connections within assigned mentor-mentee dyads. METHODS: College student female mentors (n = 54) and middle school-aged female mentees ( n = 65) in eight mentoring groups completed social network surveys on multiple occasions, rating all groupmates on connection and effort to reach out. RESULTS: Hierarchical linear models (participants nested in groups) revealed mentors who were rated as being highly connected to multiple mentees had stronger connections within their dyad. For mentees, high ratings on efforts to reach out to others related to the stronger dyadic connection. Mentees reported lower dyadic connection in groups with more segregation by role. CONCLUSION: Results suggest group dynamics matter for one-on-one mentoring relationships, but how they matter differs by role. Implications for the use of social network analysis to assess complex settings are discussed.

"It's like all of his attention is on you": A mixed methods examination of attachment, supportive nonparental youth-adult relationships, and self-esteem during adolescence.

The purpose of this mixed methods study was to examine the relationship between attachment, supportive nonparental youth-adult relationships, and self-esteem during adolescence. First, in a quantitative path analysis, we found that perceived social support from nonparental adults partially mediated the relationship between adolescent attachment and self-esteem. In our follow-up mixed methods analysis, we analyzed youth reflections of support experienced in relationships with significant non-parental adults (VIPs). As compared to youth with positive attachment models, youth with negative attachment models reported fewer instances of emotional support but more instances of validation support. The youth with negative attachment models described (1) the importance of trust and (2) receiving emotional support specific to their needs. In instances of validation support, these youth described how their VIPs (1) provided them with honest and realistic feedback, (2) challenged their negative thinking and (3) created opportunities for them to recognize and showcase their strengths. Our findings underscore the importance of considering youths' individual attributes in the context of their ongoing relationships in order to gain a more nuanced understanding of the role and dynamics of supportive nonparental youth-adult relationships in youths' lives.

Understanding mutuality: Unpacking relational processes in youth mentoring relationships.

Evidence suggests that a close interpersonal bond is important for the success of youth-adult mentoring relationships. Mutuality has been suggested to be important for developing a close interpersonal bond (Rhodes, 2002, 2005), but mutuality remains an abstract construct, difficult to understand and cultivate. Using thematic analysis of mentor and mentee (n = 42) interviews, we investigate how mentoring pairs reflect on mutuality. Results suggest that mutuality is understood as a combination of 2 dimensions: shared relational excitement and experiential empathy. Shared relational excitement is felt when there is a genuine desire by both the mentor and the mentee to invest in the relationship. Experiential empathy is the process through which mentors connect with, advise, and normalize the experiences of their mentees by sharing their own relevant experiences. This work has implications for mentor training, program development, and future research on youth-adult relationships.

End-of-Life Plans for African American Older Adults With Dementia.

African Americans are perceived to be least likely of all racial and ethnic groups to prepare for the end of life. However, verbal plans for the end of life are of particular importance to this population and may help understand why they are less likely to possess a formal end-of-life care planning document. The purpose of this study was to determine the number of formal and/or informal end-of-life care plans that existed among a convenience sample of African American older adults with dementia. For this descriptive study, data were collected from African American family caregivers (N = 65) of older adults with dementia. Descriptive statistics were conducted. Caregivers in this sample reported high rates of formal and/or informal end-of-life plans for their care recipients. Agency forms (power of attorney, health-care surrogate, or guardianship forms) had been obtained by 74% of the care recipients, while 63% of them possessed a formal end-of-life care planning document. All combined, 88% of the caregivers possessed at least 1 document or verbal information concerning end-of-life care for their care recipient or at least there was an assigned surrogate. Although limited, these findings reflect more end-of-life planning in this population than previous studies reported and could improve the quality of end-of-life outcomes in this population by giving health-care providers increased understanding of African American end-of-life planning preferences. This may, in turn, help the providers to inform and educate these care recipients and their family caregivers.

Understanding End-of-Life Decision-Making Terminology Among African American Older Adults.

The purpose of the current study was to examine understanding of end-of-life (EOL) decision-making terminology among family caregivers of African American older adults with dementia. This qualitative descriptive study was part of a larger mixed-methods study from which a subset of caregivers (n = 18) completed interviews. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and content analyses guided by methods of qualitative analysis. Caregiver interpretation of EOL decision-making terminology varied between associations before and/or after death. EOL decision making was most often a family decision, based on past experiences, and included reliance on resources such as faith or spirituality and health care providers. Patients and families attach meaning to health care terms that should be aligned with health care providers' understanding of those terms. Results provide insight to improve EOL decision making in this population via tailored interventions for patients, families, and health care providers. [Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 44(2), 33-40.].

Nurse-Patient Interaction as a Treatment for Antepartum Depression: A Mixed-Methods Analysis [Formula: see text].

BACKGROUND: The U.S. Preventative Services Task Force guidelines recommend pregnant women be screened for depression and adequate systems be in place to treat this condition. OBJECTIVE: This study examines a nurse-delivered telephone support intervention provided to low-income, pregnant women living in rural settings. DESIGN: This study had a complementary mixed-methods design, using secondary data. Peplau's theory of interpersonal relations was used as a framework to guide the study. RESULTS: The phases of Peplau's theory of interpersonal relations were evident in the interactions. Underserved women at high risk for depression appreciated this type of support, with the women at highest risk for depression utilizing more of the nursing support provided. On average, Mental Health Index-5 scores improved from 45 to 66. CONCLUSION: A nurse-delivered telephone support intervention, modeled around Peplau's theory of interpersonal relations, may be an effective way of providing support to underserved women and has the potential to treat or offset antepartum depression.

Revealing Both Sides of the Story: A Comparative Analysis of Mentors and Protégés Relational Perspectives.

Mentoring continues to be a popular intervention for promoting positive youth development. However, the underlying mechanisms associated with sustainable and successful relationships remain largely unknown. Our study aimed to expand on previous literature by examining characteristics that have previously been linked to mentoring outcomes (e.g., authenticity, empathy), from a process-focused lens. We utilized post program satisfaction scores and interviews to examine the presence of each characteristic in a large sample of dyads (n = 144) as well as dyads' levels of agreement or disagreement about aspects of the relationships. We found that high satisfaction dyads demonstrated greater congruity and detail in their descriptions of their relationships, whereas low satisfaction dyads were highly divergent and inconsistent in their descriptions. In addition, misattunement, a negative relational aspect, was the most powerful distinguisher between high and low satisfaction dyads, which provides support for mentors receiving attunement training in order to reduce instances of misattunement. Findings from this study highlight the importance of examining and assessing mentoring relationships from both the mentor and protégé perspectives, as a single perspective may not present a full picture of the relationship.

The influence of friends and psychosocial factors on physical activity and screen time behavior in adolescents: a mixed-methods analysis.

(1) Determine the association between adolescent moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and screen time with their nominated friends' behaviors and (2) explore potential mechanisms of friends' social influences on MVPA and screen time. Participants consisted of 152 adolescents (mean age: 14.5 years, 53 % female, 50 % high school, 80 % Caucasian). MVPA was measured with an Actigraph GT3X+ accelerometer. Demographic and psychosocial variables were assessed via questionnaires. Participants nominated up to 5 friends who completed MVPA and screen time questionnaires. A subset of adolescents (n = 108) participated in focus groups that examined potential mechanism of friends' influence on MVPA and screen time. Multiple regression analysis examined the association of demographic, psychological, and nominated friend variables with participants' MVPA and screen time. NVivo 10.0 was used to analyze qualitative data. Greater levels of friends' MVPA was associated with greater levels of MVPA in both males (p < .0001) and females (p < .0001). Greater levels of friends' screen time was associated with greater levels of screen time in males (p = .04) while psychosocial variables, such as increased screen time enjoyment, were associated with increased screen time in females (p = .01). School level was not associated with either MVPA or screen time. Focus group data indicated that friends positively influenced participants' MVPA through engaging in activity with participants, verbal encouragement, and modeling of MVPA. All participants preferred to be active with friends rather than alone, however, females preferred activity with a close friend while males preferred to be active with a group. Enjoyment of MVPA was the most cited reason for engaging in MVPA with friends. The majority of participants reported friends not having an influence on screen time. Adolescents with active friends are more likely to be physically active and spend less time engaging in screen-based behaviors. Interventions to increase MVPA in youth could be designed to include the recruitment of friends to increase enjoyment of MVPA.

Setting-level influences on implementation of the responsive classroom approach.

We used mixed methods to examine the association between setting-level factors and observed implementation of a social and emotional learning intervention (Responsive Classroom® approach; RC). In study 1 (N = 33 3rd grade teachers after the first year of RC implementation), we identified relevant setting-level factors and uncovered the mechanisms through which they related to implementation. In study 2 (N = 50 4th grade teachers after the second year of RC implementation), we validated our most salient Study 1 finding across multiple informants. Findings suggested that teachers perceived setting-level factors, particularly principal buy-in to the intervention and individualized coaching, as influential to their degree of implementation. Further, we found that intervention coaches' perspectives of principal buy-in were more related to implementation than principals' or teachers' perspectives. Findings extend the application of setting theory to the field of implementation science and suggest that interventionists may want to consider particular accounts of school setting factors before determining the likelihood of schools achieving high levels of implementation.

Capturing the magic: assessing the quality of youth mentoring relationships.

Mentoring programs pose some special challenges for quality assessment because they operate at two levels: that of the dyadic relationship and that of the program. Fully assessing the quality of youth mentoring relationships requires understanding the characteristics and processes of individual relationships, which are the point of service for mentoring. Yet we also must consider the program components that support their development. A number of factors have been indicated to contribute to quality mentoring relationships, including frequency and consistency of contact, feelings of connection between mentor and protégé, and the mentor's approach. Program features linked with quality relationships include mentor screening and training and expectations for frequency of contact. Assessing the quality of the relationship directly requires measuring both the mentor's and protégé's perceptions of important dimensions of the relationship, such as goals, engagement, and closeness. Single-point-in-time surveys or interviews, using both validated measures and open-ended questions, may be used as tools for assessing individual relationships at the conclusion of programs. Short surveys, logs, and observations may be useful for periodic or ongoing assessment of quality for support and intervention purposes. Focus groups and surveys of mentors may also provide useful information for assessing program components needed to support the development and maintenance of high quality relationships. The benefits and drawbacks of each of these methods for assessing relational quality are discussed. Mentoring programs are provided with references for specific tools that may be used to assess relational quality.

"I like to treat others as others would treat me": the development of prosocial selves in an urban youth organization.

The development of moral identity is linked to a sense of self that is prosocial and connected to others. Youth organizations, if designed appropriately, may provide a setting for social interactions and relationships in which youth can enact and receive validation for moral behaviors and develop prosocial selves. This chapter reports on findings from a four-year study of identity construction within an urban Boys and Girls Club. The author conducted interviews and photography projects with seventeen youth ages twelve to eighteen, all of whom were active club members. Over half described their race or ethnicity as black or African American, while others were Hispanic, Afro-Latino, white, or other. All of them either lived in the housing project near the club or had close ties to it. Both boys and girls describe themselves as rooted in a rich relational milieu that promoted prosocial identities. The importance of respect emerged as a key theme in the teens' narratives about themselves and their activities. The author found that the club served as a site for the development of prosocial traits in an environment characterized by respectful and supportive relationships.

The Transmission of Values to School-Age and Young Adult Offspring: Race and Gender Differences in Parenting.

The current study explores parental socialization practices and the values transmitted to school-aged and young adult off-spring, focusing on race and gender issues involved in parental teachings. A community sample of 187 black and white mothers and fathers were interviewed with regards to their parenting practices using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Higher levels of social concern and other-oriented themes in teachings were found among black parents, in contrast to a higher prevalence of individualistic themes among white parents. Interactions with child gender and age revealed that parents were more likely to mention individualistic skills and less likely to mention concern for others to older rather than younger daughters, with a reverse pattern found for sons. Parents remain active teachers in the lives of their children beyond the first and second decades of life, instilling skills and values shaped by ethnicity and gender. Comparison of socialization practices between racial groups reveals a notable capacity of black parents to promote personal development as well as societal well-being.

Inner-City Youth Development Organizations: Strengthening Programs for Adolescent Girls.

The challenges of early adolescence are intensified for girls of color who live in disadvantaged urban communities. One response to the needs of these girls comes from the Boys & Girls Clubs of America (BGCA), a youth development organization that has a long-standing presence in inner-city neighborhoods. A gender equity initiative designed to strengthen programming for minority girls at a BGCA affiliate in a major urban center was examined. Drawing on initial qualitative findings, a conceptual framework is presented for understanding the ways in which the clubs can affect urban early adolescent girls' self-esteem. Several strategic choices confronting this initiative then are considered. The authors emphasize the creation of a "home place" that enables the development of self via organizational responsiveness to girls' voices, strong bonds between girls and staff, adaptive peer friendship cliques, and the development of programs that fuse the interests of girls and adult staff.