Maternal mortality in Colombia during the COVID-19 pandemic: time series and social inequities.

OBJECTIVE: The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic goes beyond morbidity and mortality from that disease. Increases in maternal mortality have also been described but have not been extensively studied to date. This study aimed to examine changes in maternal mortality and identify correlates and predictors of excess maternal mortality in Colombia during the pandemic. SETTING: Analysis of data from the national epidemiological surveillance databases of Colombia (Sivigila). PARTICIPANTS: Deaths among 6342 Colombian pregnant women who experienced complications associated with pregnancy, childbirth or the perperium during 2008-2020 were included in this study. For inequalities analysis, a subsample of 1055 women from this group who died in 2019 or 2020 years were analysed. METHODS: We collected data from the national surveillance system (Sivigila) on maternal mortality. Analysis was carried out in two stages, starting with a time series modelling using the Box-Jenkins approach. Data from Sivigila for 2008-2019 were used to establish a baseline of expected mortality levels. Both simple and complex inequality metrics, with the maternal mortality ratios (MMRs), were then calculated using the Multidimensional Poverty Index as a socioeconomic proxy. RESULTS: Maternal deaths in 2020 were 12.6% (95% CI -21.4% to 95.7%) higher than expected. These excess deaths were statistically significant in elevation for the months of July (97.4%, 95% CI 35.1% to 250.0%) and August (87.8%, 95% CI 30.5% to 220.8%). The MMR was nearly three times higher in the poorest municipalities compared with the most affluent communities in 2020. CONCLUSIONS: The COVID-19 pandemic had considerable impact on maternal health, not only by leading to increased deaths, but also by increasing social health inequity. Barriers to access and usage of essential health services are a challenge to achieving health-related Sustainable Development Goals.

How Expensive Are Hospitalizations by COVID-19? Evidence From Colombia.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to estimate the direct medical costs due to hospitalizations by COVID-19 in Colombia and to identify their cost drivers in Colombia. METHODS: This is a retrospective cost-of-illness study of COVID-19 in Colombia. We estimated direct medical costs using data from patients insured to a Benefit Plan Administrator Company, between March 15, 2020 and May 29, 2020. Absolute and relative frequencies, averages, medians, and interquartile ranges (IQRs) were used to characterize the population and estimate the costs of hospitalized patients with COVID-19. We stratified the cost analysis by sex, age groups, comorbidities, and type of hospitalization (general ward and intensive care unit [ICU]). Cost drivers were calculated from a generalized linear model. RESULTS: We studied 113 confirmed patients, 51.3% men. On average, the hospital length of stay was 7.3 (± 6.2) days. A person hospitalized with COVID-19 reported median costs of $1688 (IQR 788-2523). In women, this cost was $1328 (IQR 463-2098); in men, this was 1.4 times greater. The median cost for ICU was $4118 (IQR 2069-5455), 3 times higher than those hospitalized only in the general ward. Admission to the ICU, having 1 comorbidity, length of stay, high blood pressure, having 5 comorbidities, and being treated in the city of Cartagena were statistically significant with direct medical costs. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides an idea of the magnitude of costs needed to hospitalize a COVID-19 case in Colombia. Other studies in Colombia have assessed the costs of hospitalization for infectious diseases such as influenza, costs significantly lower than those described here.

Economic costs of severe seasonal influenza in Colombia, 2017-2019: A multi-center analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the economic burden of Severe Acute Respiratory Infection (SARI) in lab-confirmed influenza patients from a low-income country setting such as Colombia. METHODS: A bottom-up costing analysis, from both third payer and social perspectives, was conducted. Direct costs of care were based on the review of 227 clinical records of lab-confirmed influenza inpatients in six facilities from three main Colombian cities. Resources were categorized as: length of stay (LOS), diagnostic and laboratory tests, medications, consultation, procedures, and supplies. A survey was designed to estimate out-of-pocket expenses (OOPE) and indirect costs covered by patients and their families. Cost per patient was estimated with the frequency of use and prices of activities, calculating median and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) with bootstrapping. Total costs are expressed as the sum of direct medical costs, OOPE and indirect costs in 2018 US dollars. RESULTS: The media direct medical cost per SARI lab-confirmed influenza patient was US$ 700 (95% CI US$ 552-809). Diagnostic and laboratory tests correspond to the highest cost per patient (37%). Median OOPE and indirect costs per patient was US$ 147 (95% CI US$ 94-202), with the highest costs for caregiver expenses (27%). Total costs were US$ 848 (95% CI US$ 646-1,011), OOPE and indirect costs corresponded to 17.4% of the total. The median of direct medical costs per patient was three times higher in elderly patients. CONCLUSION: SARI influenza costs impose a high economic burden on patients and their families. The results highlight the importance of strengthening preventive strategies nationwide in the age groups with higher occurrence and incurred health costs.

Substantial Out-of-Pocket Health Expenditure on Prenatal Check-Ups: Estimates from a Sample of Pregnant Women in Cartagena, Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to estimate out-of-pocket (OOP) health expenditures and the indirect costs related to prenatal check-ups in pregnant women seen in a maternity hospital in the Colombian Caribbean region. METHODS: We described the economic costs of pregnant women, with no age limits, who attended prenatal check-ups in a maternity hospital. To estimate OOP and indirect costs owing to prenatal check-ups in pregnant women, a survey was constructed, where the woman was asked about some sociodemographic variables, to characterize those attending the prenatal check-ups. Absolute and relative frequencies, averages and confidence intervals were used to characterize the population and estimate OOP and indirect costs in pregnant women. The latter were estimated from the percentile method. A bootstrapping was performed to reduce the bias within the analysis. RESULTS: In total, 56 pregnant women were surveyed, with an average age of 25.9 years (±6.2). All women surveyed had OOP associated to the prenatal check-up in at least one cost-item, and the OOP ranged between $0.3 and $108.7. Transportation was the item with the highest frequency of expenses, followed by food, other expenses, and drugs. The mean of OOP expenditures was $24.3 (CI 95% $18.1-31.4) for women who attended their prenatal check-up. DISCUSSION: Considering the estimated OOP health expenditures caused by prenatal check-ups by household income, women living with <1 minimum wage spend 7% of their income in a prenatal check-up. In women with 1-2 and >2-3 minimum wages, these proportions were 5%, 3%, respectively. Unfortunately, this makes prenatal care a significant source of economic burden, impacting poor households in Cartagena.

The burden of the most common rheumatic disease in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Estimating the burden of rheumatic diseases (RDs) requires proper evaluation of its lethal and nonlethal consequences. In Colombia, it is possible to find local data and Global Burden of Disease (GBD) reports that collect information from varied contexts and apply complex statistical models, but no on-site estimations are available. METHODS: This was a descriptive study on the burden of RD based on occurrence and mortality data in the general population during 2015, including information and prevalence estimations from the Community Oriented Program for the Control of Rheumatic Diseases (COPCORD) study. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were estimated by combining measures of years of life lost (YLL) and years lived with disability (YLDs). For disability weight estimations among cases, different COPCORD responses were mapped using flowcharts to show the severity distribution according to GBD. All model parameters and results were validated through an expert consensus panel. RESULTS: Low back pain (LBP) was the RD with the greatest burden of disease, costing 606.05 (95% CI 502.76-716.58) DALYs per 100,000 inhabitants, followed by osteoarthritis (292.11; 95% CI 205.76-386.85) and rheumatoid arthritis (192.46, 95% CI 109.7-239.69). CONCLUSIONS: The burden of RD is as high in Colombia as in other countries of the region. The results offer an interesting tool for optimizing healthcare system design as well as for planning the distribution of human and economic resources to achieve early diagnosis and adequate care of these diseases.

Variantes Alpha y Gamma del SARS-CoV-2: revisión rápida para contribuir en la toma de decisiones / Alpha and Gamma variants of SARS-CoV-2: rapid review to aid decision-making

Resumen Objetivo: Describir el riesgo de transmisión y severidad de las variantes de preocupación Alpha y Gamma del SARS-CoV-2 en comparación con otras variantes. Materiales y métodos: Revisión rápida y narrativa de literatura realizada en PubMed hasta mayo 10 de 2021. Resultados: La búsqueda capturó 262 artículos, de los cuales se incluyeron 15 estudios. Cuatro fueron incluidos en el control de referencias. De los 19 estudios, 6 corresponden con literatura gris. La mayoría de los estudios analizaron la variante de preocupación Alpha, solo uno para Gamma. La variante de preocupación Alpha es consistente con mayor riesgo de transmisión (entre el 35 y 89 % mayor riesgo), de hospitalización (entre 64 y 234 % mayor riesgo) y de muerte (entre 36 y 140 % mayor riesgo) en comparación con otras variantes. La variante de preocupación Gamma reporta una posible correlación fuerte y positiva entre proporción positivos y las muertes (Rho 0,71; p <0,01). Conclusiones: Se encuentra más información de la variante de preocupación Alpha que de Gamma. La variante de preocupación Alpha reporta mayor riesgo de transmisión, hospitalización y muerte en comparación con otras variantes; pero estos resultados deben tomarse con precaución.

Abstract Objective: To describe the transmission and severity risk of the Alpha and Gamma variants concerning SARS-CoV-2 compared with other variants. Materials and methods: Narrative and rapid review conducted in PubMed up to May 10, 2021. Results: The search captured 262 articles, of which 15 studies were included. Four studies were included from the reference control. Six out of the 19 studies were gray literature. Most of the studies analyzed the variant of concern, Alpha, and only one for the Gamma variant. The variant of concern, Alpha, is consistent with a higher risk of transmission (between 35 and 89% higher risk), hospitalization (between 64 and 234% higher risk) and death (between 36 and 140% higher risk) compared to other variants. The Gamma variant reports a possible strong and positive correlation between positive proportions and deaths (Rho 0.71; p <0.01). Conclusions: There is more information regarding the variant of concern Alpha than Gamma. The variant of concern Alpha reports a higher risk of transmission, hospitalization, and death; but these results should be viewed with caution.

Trends in diabetes mortality identified from death certificates in Colombia, 1979-2017.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the mortality trends of diabetes mellitus (DM) in Colombia, by sex and age group, from 1979 to 2017. METHODS: We carried out an ecological study using mortality data from the Colombian National Administrative Department of Statistics. Crude and age-standardized annual mortality rates per 100 000 people were estimated. Trends of standardized rates were described by sex and age groups. Joinpoint regression models were performed to study mortality trends. RESULTS: Throughout the whole period, the total number of DM recorded deaths in Colombia was 200 650, 58% (116 316) in women (p<0.05). The age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR) by sex increased from 13.2 to 26.6 deaths per 100 000 in women and from 10.1 to 22.7 in men from 1979 to 1999. We observed a decrease from 26.6 to 15.4 per 100 000 in women, and from 22.7 to 15.9 in men for the period 1999-2017. The joinpoint regression analysis showed that the average annual percentage change of the period did not vary in both sexes (men: -0.2%, 95% CI -1.0 to 1.4%; women: 0.7%, 95% CI -0.1 to 1.6%). CONCLUSIONS: The DM mortality showed a decreasing trend after 2000 in women and 2004 in men. Primary and secondary prevention programs must continue to be strengthened for an earlier diagnosis of diabetes.

OBJETIVO: Describir las tendencias de la mortalidad por diabetes mellitus (DM) en Colombia, por sexo y grupo de edad, entre 1979 y 2017. MÉTODOS: Estudio ecológico con datos de mortalidad del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística de Colombia. Se estimaron las tasas de mortalidad anuales brutas y ajustadas por edad por cada 100 000 personas. Se describieron las tendencias de las tasas ajustadas por sexo y grupos de edad. Se realizaron modelos de regresión joinpoint para estudiar las tendencias de la mortalidad. RESULTADOS: En el período del estudio, el número total de muertes por DM registradas en Colombia fue de 200 650, el 58% (116 316) en mujeres (p<0,05). Las tasas de mortalidad ajustadas por edad, en cada sexo, aumentaron de 13,2 a 26,6 muertes por 100 000 en las mujeres y de 10,1 a 22,7 en los hombres entre 1979 y 1999. En el período 1999-2017 se observó una disminución de 26,6 a 15,4 por 100 000 en las mujeres y de 22,7 a 15,9 en los hombres. El análisis de regresión joinpoint demostró que el cambio porcentual anual medio del período no varió en ambos sexos (hombres: ­0,2%, IC 95% ­1,0 a 1,4%; mujeres: 0,7%, IC 95% ­0,1 a 1,6%). CONCLUSIONES: La mortalidad por DM mostró una tendencia decreciente después del año 2000 en las mujeres y del 2004 en los hombres. Es necesario seguir fortaleciendo los programas de prevención primaria y secundaria a fin de alcanzar un diagnóstico más temprano de la diabetes.

Trends in diabetes mortality identified from death certificates in Colombia, 1979-2017

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To describe the mortality trends of diabetes mellitus (DM) in Colombia, by sex and age group, from 1979 to 2017. Methods. We carried out an ecological study using mortality data from the Colombian National Administrative Department of Statistics. Crude and age-standardized annual mortality rates per 100 000 people were estimated. Trends of standardized rates were described by sex and age groups. Joinpoint regression models were performed to study mortality trends. Results. Throughout the whole period, the total number of DM recorded deaths in Colombia was 200 650, 58% (116 316) in women (p<0.05). The age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR) by sex increased from 13.2 to 26.6 deaths per 100 000 in women and from 10.1 to 22.7 in men from 1979 to 1999. We observed a decrease from 26.6 to 15.4 per 100 000 in women, and from 22.7 to 15.9 in men for the period 1999-2017. The joinpoint regression analysis showed that the average annual percentage change of the period did not vary in both sexes (men: -0.2%, 95% CI –1.0 to 1.4%; women: 0.7%, 95% CI –0.1 to 1.6%). Conclusions. The DM mortality showed a decreasing trend after 2000 in women and 2004 in men. Primary and secondary prevention programs must continue to be strengthened for an earlier diagnosis of diabetes.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Describir las tendencias de la mortalidad por diabetes mellitus (DM) en Colombia, por sexo y grupo de edad, entre 1979 y 2017. Métodos. Estudio ecológico con datos de mortalidad del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística de Colombia. Se estimaron las tasas de mortalidad anuales brutas y ajustadas por edad por cada 100 000 personas. Se describieron las tendencias de las tasas ajustadas por sexo y grupos de edad. Se realizaron modelos de regresión joinpoint para estudiar las tendencias de la mortalidad. Resultados. En el período del estudio, el número total de muertes por DM registradas en Colombia fue de 200 650, el 58% (116 316) en mujeres (p<0,05). Las tasas de mortalidad ajustadas por edad, en cada sexo, aumentaron de 13,2 a 26,6 muertes por 100 000 en las mujeres y de 10,1 a 22,7 en los hombres entre 1979 y 1999. En el período 1999-2017 se observó una disminución de 26,6 a 15,4 por 100 000 en las mujeres y de 22,7 a 15,9 en los hombres. El análisis de regresión joinpoint demostró que el cambio porcentual anual medio del período no varió en ambos sexos (hombres: –0,2%, IC 95% –1,0 a 1,4%; mujeres: 0,7%, IC 95% –0,1 a 1,6%). Conclusiones. La mortalidad por DM mostró una tendencia decreciente después del año 2000 en las mujeres y del 2004 en los hombres. Es necesario seguir fortaleciendo los programas de prevención primaria y secundaria a fin de alcanzar un diagnóstico más temprano de la diabetes.

Trends in diabetes mortality identified from death certificates in Colombia, 1979-2017 / Tendencias de la mortalidad por diabetes identificadas a partir de los certificados de defunción en Colombia, 1979-2017

ABSTRACT Objective. To describe the mortality trends of diabetes mellitus (DM) in Colombia, by sex and age group, from 1979 to 2017. Methods. We carried out an ecological study using mortality data from the Colombian National Administrative Department of Statistics. Crude and age-standardized annual mortality rates per 100 000 people were estimated. Trends of standardized rates were described by sex and age groups. Joinpoint regression models were performed to study mortality trends. Results. Throughout the whole period, the total number of DM recorded deaths in Colombia was 200 650, 58% (116 316) in women (p<0.05). The age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR) by sex increased from 13.2 to 26.6 deaths per 100 000 in women and from 10.1 to 22.7 in men from 1979 to 1999. We observed a decrease from 26.6 to 15.4 per 100 000 in women, and from 22.7 to 15.9 in men for the period 1999-2017. The joinpoint regression analysis showed that the average annual percentage change of the period did not vary in both sexes (men: -0.2%, 95% CI -1.0 to 1.4%; women: 0.7%, 95% CI -0.1 to 1.6%). Conclusions. The DM mortality showed a decreasing trend after 2000 in women and 2004 in men. Primary and secondary prevention programs must continue to be strengthened for an earlier diagnosis of diabetes.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Describir las tendencias de la mortalidad por diabetes mellitus (DM) en Colombia, por sexo y grupo de edad, entre 1979 y 2017. Métodos. Estudio ecológico con datos de mortalidad del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística de Colombia. Se estimaron las tasas de mortalidad anuales brutas y ajustadas por edad por cada 100 000 personas. Se describieron las tendencias de las tasas ajustadas por sexo y grupos de edad. Se realizaron modelos de regresión joinpoint para estudiar las tendencias de la mortalidad. Resultados. En el período del estudio, el número total de muertes por DM registradas en Colombia fue de 200 650, el 58% (116 316) en mujeres (p<0,05). Las tasas de mortalidad ajustadas por edad, en cada sexo, aumentaron de 13,2 a 26,6 muertes por 100 000 en las mujeres y de 10,1 a 22,7 en los hombres entre 1979 y 1999. En el período 1999-2017 se observó una disminución de 26,6 a 15,4 por 100 000 en las mujeres y de 22,7 a 15,9 en los hombres. El análisis de regresión joinpoint demostró que el cambio porcentual anual medio del período no varió en ambos sexos (hombres: -0,2%, IC 95% -1,0 a 1,4%; mujeres: 0,7%, IC 95% -0,1 a 1,6%). Conclusiones. La mortalidad por DM mostró una tendencia decreciente después del año 2000 en las mujeres y del 2004 en los hombres. Es necesario seguir fortaleciendo los programas de prevención primaria y secundaria a fin de alcanzar un diagnóstico más temprano de la diabetes.

Inequalities in health by regime of affiliation to the health system in events of obligatory notification, Colombia, 2015 / Desigualdades en salud según régimen de afiliación y eventos notificados al Sistema de Vigilancia (Sivigila) en Colombia, 2015

Introduction: Inequalities in the health field are caused by the differences in the social and economic conditions, that influence the disease risk and the measures taken to treat the disease. Objective: We aimed to estimate the social inequalities in health in Colombia, according to the type of affiliation to the health system as a proxy of socioeconomic status. Materials and methods: We conducted a retrospective descriptive analysis calculating incidence rates age and sex adjusted for all mandatory reporting events using the affiliation regime (subsidized and contributory) as a socioeconomic proxy. Estimates were made at departmental level for 2015. Social inequalities were calculated in terms of absolute and relative gaps. Results: We found social inequalities in the occurrence of mandatory reporting events in population affiliated to the Colombian subsidized regime (poor population). In this population, 82.31 cases of Plasmodium falciparum malaria per 100,000 affiliates were reported more than those reported in the contributory regime. Regarding the relative gap, belonging to the subsidized regime increased by 31.74 times the risk of dying from malnutrition in children under 5 years of age. Other events such as those related to sexual and reproductive health (maternal mortality, gestational syphilis and congenital syphilis); neglected diseases and communicable diseases related to poverty (leprosy and tuberculosis), also showed profound inequalities. Conclusion: In Colombia there are inequalities by regime of affiliation to the health system. Measured socioeconomic status was a predictor of increased morbidity and premature mortality.

Introducción. Las desigualdades en salud se generan por diferencias en las condiciones sociales y económicas, lo cual influye en el riesgo de enfermar y la forma de enfrentar la enfermedad. Objetivo. Evaluar las desigualdades sociales en salud en Colombia, utilizando el tipo de afiliación al sistema de salud como un parámetro representativo (proxy) de la condición socioeconómica. Materiales y métodos. Se trata de un análisis descriptivo y retrospectivo en el que se calcularon las tasas específicas de incidencia, ajustadas por edad y sexo, para eventos de notificación obligatoria, utilizando el régimen de afiliación (subsidiado o contributivo) como variable representativa del nivel socioeconómico. Las estimaciones se hicieron a nivel departamental para el 2015. Las desigualdades sociales se calcularon en términos de brechas absolutas y relativas. Resultados. Se evidencian desigualdades sociales en la ocurrencia de eventos de notificación obligatoria, las cuales desfavorecen a la población afiliada al régimen subsidiado. En esta población, se reportaron 82,31 casos más de malaria Plasmodium falciparum por 100.000 afiliados, que los notificados en el régimen contributivo. Respecto a la brecha relativa, el pertenecer al régimen subsidiado se asocia con un aumento de 31,74 veces del riesgo de morir por desnutrición en menores de cinco años. Otros eventos también presentaron profundas desigualdades, como los relacionados con la salud sexual y reproductiva (mortalidad materna, sífilis gestacional y sífilis congénita), las enfermedades infecciosas y las enfermedades transmisibles relacionadas con la pobreza (lepra y tuberculosis). Conclusión. El tipo de afiliación al Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud en Colombia es un buen indicador del nivel socioeconómico, y es un factor predictor de mayor morbilidad y mortalidad prematura asociada con los factores determinantes sociales de la salud.

Desigualdades en salud según régimen de afiliación y eventos notificados al Sistema de Vigilancia (Sivigila) en Colombia, 2015 / Inequalities in health by regime of affiliation to the health system in events of obligatory notification, Colombia, 2015

Introducción. Las desigualdades en salud se generan por diferencias en las condiciones sociales y económicas, lo cual influye en el riesgo de enfermar y la forma de enfrentar la enfermedad. Objetivo. Evaluar las desigualdades sociales en salud en Colombia, utilizando el tipo de afiliación al sistema de salud como un parámetro representativo (proxy) de la condición socioeconómica. Materiales y métodos. Se trata de un análisis descriptivo y retrospectivo en el que se calcularon las tasas específicas de incidencia, ajustadas por edad y sexo, para eventos de notificación obligatoria, utilizando el régimen de afiliación (subsidiado o contributivo) como variable representativa del nivel socioeconómico. Las estimaciones se hicieron a nivel departamental para el 2015. Las desigualdades sociales se calcularon en términos de brechas absolutas y relativas. Resultados. Se evidencian desigualdades sociales en la ocurrencia de eventos de notificación obligatoria, las cuales desfavorecen a la población afiliada al régimen subsidiado. En esta población, se reportaron 82,31 casos más de malaria Plasmodium falciparum por 100.000 afiliados, que los notificados en el régimen contributivo. Respecto a la brecha relativa, el pertenecer al régimen subsidiado se asocia con un aumento de 31,74 veces del riesgo de morir por desnutrición en menores de cinco años. Otros eventos también presentaron profundas desigualdades, como los relacionados con la salud sexual y reproductiva (mortalidad materna, sífilis gestacional y sífilis congénita), las enfermedades infecciosas y las enfermedades transmisibles relacionadas con la pobreza (lepra y tuberculosis). Conclusión. El tipo de afiliación al Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud en Colombia es un buen indicador del nivel socioeconómico, y es un factor predictor de mayor morbilidad y mortalidad prematura asociada con los factores determinantes sociales de la salud.

Introduction: Inequalities in the health field are caused by the differences in the social and economic conditions, that influence the disease risk and the measures taken to treat the disease. Objective: We aimed to estimate the social inequalities in health in Colombia, according to the type of affiliation to the health system as a proxy of socioeconomic status. Materials and methods: We conducted a retrospective descriptive analysis calculating incidence rates age and sex adjusted for all mandatory reporting events using the affiliation regime (subsidized and contributory) as a socioeconomic proxy. Estimates were made at departmental level for 2015. Social inequalities were calculated in terms of absolute and relative gaps. Results: We found social inequalities in the occurrence of mandatory reporting events in population affiliated to the Colombian subsidized regime (poor population). In this population, 82.31 cases of Plasmodium falciparum malaria per 100,000 affiliates were reported more than those reported in the contributory regime. Regarding the relative gap, belonging to the subsidized regime increased by 31.74 times the risk of dying from malnutrition in children under 5 years of age. Other events such as those related to sexual and reproductive health (maternal mortality, gestational syphilis and congenital syphilis); neglected diseases and communicable diseases related to poverty (leprosy and tuberculosis), also showed profound inequalities. Conclusion: In Colombia there are inequalities by regime of affiliation to the health system. Measured socioeconomic status was a predictor of increased morbidity and premature mortality.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of Mucosal Leishmaniasis diagnosis with PCR-based vs parasitological tests in Colombia.

To estimate the cost-effectiveness of available diagnosis alternatives for Mucosal Leishmaniasis (ML) in Colombian suspected patients. A simulation model of the disease's natural history was built with a decision tree and Markov models. The model´s parameters were identified by systematic review and validated by expert consensus. A bottom-up cost analysis to estimate the costs of diagnostic strategies and treatment per case was performed by reviewing 48 clinical records of patients diagnosed with ML. The diagnostic strategies compared were as follows: 1) no diagnosis; 2) parasite culture, biopsy, indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), and Montenegro skin test (MST) combined ; 3) parasite culture, biopsy, and IFA combined; 4) PCR-miniexon; and 5) PCR-kDNA. Three scenarios were modeled in patients with ML clinical suspicion, according to ML prevalence scenarios: high, medium and low. Adjusted sensitivity and specificity parameters of a combination of diagnostic tests were estimated with a discrete event simulation (DES) model. For each alternative, the costs and health outcomes were estimated. The time horizon was life expectancy, considering the average age at diagnosis of 31 years. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) were calculated per Disability Life Year (DALY) avoided, and deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed. A threshold of willingness to pay (WTP) of three-time gross domestic product per capita (GDPpc) (US$ 15,795) and a discount rate of 3% was considered. The analysis perspective was the third payer (Health System). All costs were reported in American dollars as of 2015. PCR- kDNA was the cost-effective alternative in clinical suspicion levels: low, medium and high with ICERs of US$ 7,909.39, US$ 5,559.33 and US$ 4,458.92 per DALY avoided, respectively. ML diagnostic tests based on PCR are cost-effective strategies, regardless of the level of clinical suspicion. PCR-kDNA was the most cost-effective strategy in the competitive scenario with the parameters included in the present model.

The trend in mortality due to suicide in urban and rural areas of Colombia, 1979-2014 / Tendencia de la mortalidad por suicidio en las áreas urbanas y rurales de Colombia, 1979-2014

Introduction: Suicide is a serious social and public health problem that affects the population in most countries in the world. Differences in suicide rates in rural and urban areas have been previously described. Objective: To study the trend of mortality rates by suicide in Colombia, in rural and urban areas by gender, age group, and suicide method during the years 1979-2014. Materials and methods: We conducted a temporal trend ecologic study using death certificates from the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, DANE. Specific and adjusted by age and gender mortality rates were calculated. We estimated negative binomial and inflection point regression models to study the trends in mortality rates stratified by gender, age group, and suicide method. Results: A total of 56,448 suicides was reported in Colombia between 1979 and 2014. The risk of suicide was higher in urban areas for men, individuals between 25 and 44 years, and 65 and over; and for those who used hanging as the suicide method. Also, the risk of suicide was higher in the rural area for men between 45 and 64 years old, and those who used firearms, sharp weapons, hanging, and others as suicide methods. The trend of suicide rates in urban areas showed its maximum peak in 1999 and in the rural ones in 2000. Then, in the two areas, there was a gradual decrease. Hanging in both areas presented a tendency to rise in men. Conclusions: Suicide has shown a tendency toward reduction after the year 2000, with differences between urban and rural areas.

Introducción. El suicidio es un grave problema social y de salud pública que afecta a la población de la mayoría de los países del mundo. Se han descrito diferencias en las tasas de suicidio entre las áreas rurales y las urbanas. Objetivo. Estudiar la tendencia de las tasas de mortalidad por suicidio en Colombia en las áreas de defunción rural y urbana y según sexo, grupo de edad y método de suicidio para el periodo 1979-2014. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio ecológico de tendencia temporal a partir de la información de mortalidad del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística. Se calcularon las tasas de mortalidad específica y ajustada por edad y sexo. Las tendencias de las tasas por área para el periodo de estudio, y tanto por sexo y grupo de edad como por método de suicidio, se estudiaron mediante modelos negativos de regresión binomial y regresión de puntos de inflexión. Resultados. Un total de 56.448 suicidios se registró en Colombia entre 1979 y 2014. El riesgo de suicidio fue más alto en el área urbana en hombres, en los grupos etarios de 25 a 44 años y de 65 y más años, y en quienes emplearon el ahorcamiento. El riesgo de suicidio fue mayor en el área rural para los hombres entre los 45 y los 64 años, y para aquellos que recurrieron al disparo de armas de fuego, armas cortantes, ahorcamiento y otros. La tendencia de las tasas en el área urbana mostró su máximo pico en 1999 y, en la rural, en el 2000; posteriormente, en ambas áreas se produjo un descenso paulatino. El ahorcamiento presentó una tendencia al ascenso en hombres en las dos áreas. Conclusión. El suicidio ha mostrado una tendencia hacia la reducción después del año 2000, con diferencias entre las áreas urbanas y las rurales.

Tendencia de la mortalidad por suicidio en las áreas urbanas y rurales de Colombia, 1979-2014

Introducción. El suicidio es un grave problema social y de salud pública que afecta a la población de la mayoría de los países del mundo. Se han descrito diferencias en las tasas de suicidio entre las áreas rurales y las urbanas. Objetivo. Estudiar la tendencia de las tasas de mortalidad por suicidio en Colombia en las áreas de defunción rural y urbana y según sexo, grupo de edad y método de suicidio para el periodo 1979-2014. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio ecológico de tendencia temporal a partir de la información de mortalidad del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística. Se calcularon las tasas de mortalidad específica y ajustada por edad y sexo. Las tendencias de las tasas por área para el periodo de estudio, y tanto por sexo y grupo de edad como por método de suicidio, se estudiaron mediante modelos negativos de regresión binomial y regresión de puntos de inflexión. Resultados. Un total de 56.448 suicidios se registró en Colombia entre 1979 y 2014. El riesgo de suicidio fue más alto en el área urbana en hombres, en los grupos etarios de 25 a 44 años y de 65 y más años, y en quienes emplearon el ahorcamiento. El riesgo de suicidio fue mayor en el área rural para los hombres entre los 45 y los 64 años, y para aquellos que recurrieron al disparo de armas de fuego, armas cortantes, ahorcamiento y otros. La tendencia de las tasas en el área urbana mostró su máximo pico en 1999 y, en la rural, en el 2000; posteriormente, en ambas áreas se produjo un descenso paulatino. El ahorcamiento presentó una tendencia al ascenso en hombres en las dos áreas. Conclusión. El suicidio ha mostrado una tendencia hacia la reducción después del año 2000, con diferencias entre las áreas urbanas y las rurales.

Introduction: Suicide is a serious social and public health problem that affects the population in most countries in the world. Differences in suicide rates in rural and urban areas have been previously described. Objective: To study the trend of mortality rates by suicide in Colombia, in rural and urban areas by gender, age group, and suicide method during the years 1979-2014. Materials and methods: We conducted a temporal trend ecologic study using death certificates from the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, DANE. Specific and adjusted by age and gender mortality rates were calculated. We estimated negative binomial and inflection point regression models to study the trends in mortality rates stratified by gender, age group, and suicide method. Results: A total of 56,448 suicides was reported in Colombia between 1979 and 2014. The risk of suicide was higher in urban areas for men, individuals between 25 and 44 years, and 65 and over; and for those who used hanging as the suicide method. Also, the risk of suicide was higher in the rural area for men between 45 and 64 years old, and those who used firearms, sharp weapons, hanging, and others as suicide methods. The trend of suicide rates in urban areas showed its maximum peak in 1999 and in the rural ones in 2000. Then, in the two areas, there was a gradual decrease. Hanging in both areas presented a tendency to rise in men. Conclusions: Suicide has shown a tendency toward reduction after the year 2000, with differences between urban and rural areas.

Minería de oro y aumento de la malaria: ¿qué ocurre en Chocó? / Gold mining and increased malaria: what happens in Chocó?

La minería de oro a cielo abierto se ha asociado a diversos problemas de salud en la población, entre esos la proliferación de enfermedades infecciosas como la malaria. El departamento del Chocó, uno de los más importantes productores de oro del país, ha venido siendo afectado por un aumento en el número de casos y muertes por Malaria. Con el fin de poner a prueba si estos dos eventos se encuentran relacionados el ONS llevó a cabo un estudio para evaluar la asociación entre los niveles de producción de oro en los municipios del Chocó y los casos de malaria. El estudio encontró que los municipios con mayor producción de oro también presentan en promedio el mayor número de casos de malaria anualmente. De acuerdo con los hallazgos de este y otros estudios es importante para el control de la malaria abrir los espacios necesarios para discutir la minería de oro como un factor determinante en la propagación de la malaria en el departamento del Chocó y probablemente otras regiones mineras de Colombia.

Inequalities on mortality due to acute respiratory infection in children: A Colombian analysis / Desigualdades en la mortalidad debidas a la infección respiratoria aguda en niños: análisis de la situación en Colombia

Introduction: Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are a leading public health issue worldwide. Objective: To explore the inequalities in ARI mortality rates in under-5, according to socioeconomic characteristics. Materials and methods: We conducted an ecological analysis to study inequalities at municipal level due to ARI mortality in children under 5 years. The data were obtained from official death records of the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística. The analysis of inequalities in the under-5 mortality rate (U5MR) included: 1) Classification of the population in different socio-economic strata, and 2) measurement of the degree of inequality. We used the ARI-U5MR as an outcome measurement. The mortality rates were estimated at national and municipal levels for the years 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2013. Rate ratios, rates differences, and concentration curves were calculated to observe the inequalities. Results: A total of 18,012 children under 5 years died by ARI in Colombia from 2000 to 2013. ARIU5MR was greater in boys than in girls. During this period, an increase in the infant mortality relative gap in both boys and girls was observed. In 2013, the U5MR evidenced that for boys from municipalities with the highest poverty had a 1.6-fold risk to die than those in municipalities with the lowest poverty (low tercile). In girls, the ARI-U5MR for 2005 and 2013 in the poorest tercile was 1.5 and 2 times greater than in the first tercile, respectively. Conclusion: Colombian inequalities in the ARI mortality rate among the poorest municipalities compared to the richest ones continue to be a major challenge in public health.

Introducción. Las infecciones respiratorias agudas (IRA) son un importante problema de salud pública a nivel mundial. Objetivo. Explorar las desigualdades de la tasa de mortalidad debida a IRA en niños menores de 5 años según las variables socioeconómicas. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un análisis ecológico para estudiar las desigualdades a nivel municipal de las tasas de mortalidad por IRA en menores de 5 años. Los datos se obtuvieron a partir de los registros de muertes del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística. El análisis de desigualdades incluyó la clasificación de la población por estatus socioeconómico y la medición del grado de desigualdad. Como resultado en salud se utilizó la tasa de mortalidad por IRA en menores de 5 años. Se estimaron tasas a nivel nacional y municipal para 2000, 2005, 2010 y 2013. Se calcularon razones y diferencias de tasas y curvas de concentración para observar las desigualdades. Resultados. Entre 2000 y 2013 murieron por IRA en Colombia 18.012 menores de 5 años. La tasa de mortalidad por ARI fue mayor en niños que en niñas. En el periodo, se observó un incremento en la brecha de mortalidad infantil en ambos sexos. En el 2013, la tasa de niños que murieron en municipios con mayor pobreza fue 1,6 veces mayor que la de niños en aquellos con menos pobreza. En niñas, en el 2005 y el 2013, la tasa en el tercil más pobre fue 1,5 y 2 veces mayor que la del primer tercil, respectivamente. Conclusión. Las desigualdades en la tasa de mortalidad por IRA de los municipios más pobres en comparación con la de los más ricos, continúan siendo un reto importante en salud pública.

The DEAD-Box RNA Helicases of Bacillus subtilis as a Model to Evaluate Genetic Compensation Among Duplicate Genes.

The presence of duplicated genes in organisms is well documented. There is increasing interest in understanding how these genes subfunctionalize and whether functional overlap can explain the fact that some of these genes are dispensable. Bacillus subtilis possesses four DEAD-box RNA helicases (DBRH) genes, cshA, cshB, deaD/yxiN, and yfmL that make a good case to study to what extent they can complement each other despite their subfunctionalization. They possess the highly conserved N-terminal catalytic domain core common to RNA helicases, but different carboxy-terminal ends. All four genes have been shown to have independent functions although all participate in rRNA assembly. None of the B. subtilis DBRH is essential for growth at 37°C, and all single deletion mutants exhibit defective growth at 18°C except for ΔdeaD/yxiN. Evaluation of double mutants did not reveal negative epistasis, suggesting that they do not have overlapping functions. The absence of any one gene distorts the expression pattern of the others, but not in a specific pattern suggestive of compensation. Overexpression of these paralogous genes in the different mutant backgrounds did not result in cross-complementation, further confirming their lack of buffering capability. Since no complementation could be observed among full sized proteins, we evaluated to what extent the superfamily 2 (SF2) helicase core of the smallest DBRH, YfmL, could be functional when hooked to each of the C-terminal end of CshA, CshB, and DeaD/YxiN. None of the different chimeras complemented the different mutants, and instead, all chimeras inhibited the growth of the ΔyfmL mutant, and other combinations were also deleterious. Our findings suggest that the long time divergence between DEAD-box RNA helicase genes has resulted in specialized activities in RNA metabolism and shows that these duplicated genes cannot buffer one another.

Economic Costs of Chikungunya Virus in Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to estimate the economic impact of chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection in Colombia from a societal perspective. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective, bottom-up cost-of-illness study in clinically confirmed cases during the first chikungunya (CHIK) outbreak in Colombia in 2014. Direct and indirect costs were estimated per patient. Economic costs were calculated by the addition of direct costs (direct medical costs and out-of-pocket heath expenditures) and indirect cost as a result of loss of productivity. RESULTS: A total of 126 patients (67 children and 59 adults) with CHIK were included. The median of the direct medical cost in children was US$257.9 (interquartile range [IQR] 121.7-563.8), and US$66.6 (IQR 26.5-317.3) for adults. The productivity loss median expenditures reached US$81.3 (IQR 72.2-203.2) per adult patient. The median economic cost in adults as a result of CHIK was US$152.9 (IQR 101.0-539.6), of which 53.2% was a result of indirect costs. Out-of-pocket expenditures comprised 3.3% of all economic costs. CONCLUSIONS: Our study can help health decision makers to properly assess the burden of disease caused by CHIK in Colombia, an endemic tropical country. We recommend to strength the health information systems and to continue investing in public health measures to prevent CHIK.

Phosphomannosylation and the Functional Analysis of the Extended Candida albicans MNN4-Like Gene Family.

Phosphomannosylation is a modification of cell wall proteins that occurs in some species of yeast-like organisms, including the human pathogen Candida albicans. These modified mannans confer a negative charge to the wall, which is important for the interactions with phagocytic cells of the immune systems and cationic antimicrobial peptides. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the synthesis of phosphomannan relies on two enzymes, the phosphomannosyltransferase Ktr6 and its positive regulator Mnn4. However, in C. albicans, at least three phosphomannosyltransferases, Mnn4, Mnt3 and Mnt5, participate in the addition of phosphomannan. In addition to MNN4, C. albicans has a MNN4-like gene family composed of seven other homologous members that have no known function. Here, using the classical mini-Ura-blaster approach and the new gene knockout CRISPR-Cas9 system for gene disruption, we generated mutants lacking single and multiple genes of the MNN4 family; and demonstrate that, although Mnn4 has a major impact on the phosphomannan content, MNN42 was also required for full protein phosphomannosylation. The reintroduction of MNN41, MNN42, MNN46, or MNN47 in a genetic background lacking MNN4 partially restored the phenotype associated with the mnn4Δ null mutant, suggesting that there is partial redundancy of function between some family members and that the dominant effect of MNN4 over other genes could be due to its relative abundance within the cell. We observed that additional copies of alleles number of any of the other family members, with the exception of MNN46, restored the phosphomannan content in cells lacking both MNT3 and MNT5. We, therefore, suggest that phosphomannosylation is achieved by three groups of proteins: [i] enzymes solely activated by Mnn4, [ii] enzymes activated by the dual action of Mnn4 and any of the products of other MNN4-like genes, with exception of MNN46, and [iii] activation of Mnt3 and Mnt5 by Mnn4 and Mnn46. Therefore, although the MNN4-like genes have the potential to functionally redundant with Mnn4, they apparently do not play a major role in cell wall mannosylation under most in vitro growth conditions. In addition, our phenotypic analyses indicate that several members of this gene family influence the ability of macrophages to phagocytose C. albicans cells.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae KTR4, KTR5 and KTR7 encode mannosyltransferases differentially involved in the N- and O-linked glycosylation pathways.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a model to understand basic aspects of protein glycosylation pathways. Although these metabolic routes have been thoroughly studied, there are still knowledge gaps; among them, the role of the MNT1/KRE2 gene family. This family is composed of nine members, with only six functionally characterized. The enzymes Ktr1, Ktr3, and Mnt1/Kre2 have overlapping activities in both O-linked and N-linked glycan synthesis; while Ktr2 and Yur1 participate exclusively in the elongation of the N-linked glycan outer chain. KTR6 encodes for a phosphomannosyltransferase that synthesizes the cell wall phosphomannan. Here, we aimed to establish the functional role of KTR4, KTR5 and KTR7 in the protein glycosylation pathways, by using heterologous complementation in Candida albicans null mutants lacking members of the MNT1/KRE2 gene family. The three S. cerevisiae genes restored defects in the C. albicans N-linked glycosylation pathway. KTR5 and KTR7 partially complemented a C. albicans null mutant with defects in the synthesis of O-linked glycans, and only KTR4 fully elongated the O-linked glycans like wild-type cells. Therefore, our results suggest that the three genes have a redundant activity in the S. cerevisiae N-linked glycosylation pathway, but KTR4 plays a major role in O-linked glycan synthesis.