A Rat Model of the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Val66Met Polymorphism Shows Attenuated Motivation for Alcohol Self-Administration and Diminished Propensity for Cue-Induced Relapse in Females.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been implicated in alcohol use disorder. The Val66Met polymorphism is a common variant of the BDNF gene (rs6265) which reduces activity-dependent BDNF release, and has been suggested as a risk factor for psychiatric disorders and substance use. Using an operant self-administration paradigm, this study aimed to investigate ethanol preference and ethanol seeking in a novel rat model of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism, Val68Met rats. Male and female BDNF Val68Met rats of three genotypes (Val/Val, Val/Met and Met/Met) were trained to lever press for a 10% ethanol solution. There was no effect of Val68Met genotype on acquisition of stable response to ethanol or its extinction. Met/Met rats of both sexes had a slight, but significantly lower breakpoint during progressive ratio sessions while female rats with the Met/Met genotype demonstrated a lower propensity for reinstatement of responding to cues. There were no effects of Val68Met genotype on anxiety-like behaviour or locomotor activity. In conclusion, Met/Met rats showed lower motivation to continue to press for a reward, and also a decreased propensity to relapse, suggesting a possible protective effect of the Met/Met genotype against alcohol use disorder, at least in females.

Brain-Derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met induces female-specific changes in impulsive behaviour and alcohol self-administration in mice.

Substance use disorders are a debilitating neuropsychiatric condition, however it remains unclear why some individuals are at greater risk of substance use disorders than others and what genetic factors determine such individual differences. Impulsivity appears a promising candidate endophenotype to bridge the gap between genetic risk and addiction. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and in particular the BDNFVal66Met polymorphism, has been suggested to be involved in both impulsivity and substance use disorders, however results so far have been inconsistent. To investigate the role of BDNF, and more specifically the BDNFVal66Met polymorphism, in both impulsivity and operant alcohol self-administration using the same animal model. Separate cohorts of humanized Val66Met transgenic mice were assessed for either trait impulsivity in the 5-choice serial reaction time (5-CSRT) touchscreen task, or propensity towards obtaining ethanol in an operant paradigm. It was found that female hBDNFVal/Val mice exhibited both greater impulsivity compared to hBDNFMet/Met mice of the same sex as shown by a higher number of premature responses at one of three increased inter-trial intervals tested in the 5-CSRT task, and a greater propensity toward stable ethanol self-administration relative to male mice of the same genotype in the operant paradigm. By contrast, male mice showed no difference between genotypes in impulsivity or stable ethanol self-administration. The hBDNFMet/Met genotype appears to sex-specifically alter aspects of both impulsive behaviour and addiction propensity. These results suggest that impulse behaviour may be a possible predictor of addiction risk.

7,8-Dihydroxyflavone Enhances Cue-Conditioned Alcohol Reinstatement in Rats.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a detrimental disease that develops through chronic ethanol exposure. Reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression has been associated with AUD and alcohol addiction, however the effects of activation of BDNF signalling in the brain on voluntary alcohol intake reinstatement and relapse are unknown. We therefore trained male and female Sprague Dawley rats in operant chambers to self-administer a 10% ethanol solution. Following baseline acquisition and progressive ratio (PR) analysis, rats were split into drug and vehicle groups during alcohol lever extinction. The animals received two weeks of daily IP injection of either the BDNF receptor, TrkB, agonist, 7,8-dihydroxyflavone (7,8-DHF), or vehicle. During acquisition of alcohol self-administration, males had significantly higher absolute numbers of alcohol-paired lever presses and a higher PR breakpoint. However, after adjusting for body weight, the amount of ethanol was not different between the sexes and the PR breakpoint was higher in females than males. Following extinction, alcohol-primed reinstatement in male rats was not altered by pretreatment with 7,8-DHF when adjusted for body weight. In contrast, in female rats, the weight-adjusted potential amount of ethanol, but not absolute numbers of active lever presses, was significantly enhanced by 7,8-DHF treatment during reinstatement. Analysis of spontaneous locomotor activity in automated photocell cages suggested that the effect of 7,8-DHF was not associated with hyperactivity. These results suggest that stimulation of the TrkB receptor may contribute to reward craving and relapse in AUD, particularly in females.

Neuropeptide modulation of addiction: Focus on galanin.

Addiction is a chronic, relapsing disorder characterised by the use of a substance or act to the point of compulsion. There are a number of medical treatments available for the intervention of these disorders, however, the effectiveness of current therapeutics is far from adequate. Neuropeptides are known to modulate addictive behaviours and may provide new therapeutic targets for the treatment of substance abuse. Accumulating evidence has suggested galanin as a potential important neuromodulator of addiction. Both human genetic studies and animal models have highlighted a role for this neuropeptide in affective disorders, as well as alcohol, nicotine, and opiate dependence. This review highlights the role of galanin and other primary neuropeptides implicated in modulating addiction to different drugs of abuse. Orexin, relaxin-3, corticotrophin-releasing factor, dynorphin and enkephalin, are also discussed given their involvement in mediating reward-seeking behaviour.

Mild Closed-Head Injury in Conscious Rats Causes Transient Neurobehavioral and Glial Disturbances: A Novel Experimental Model of Concussion.

Rodent models can provide insights into the most pertinent issues surrounding concussion. Nonetheless, the relevance of some existing models to clinical concussion can be questioned, particularly with regard to the use of surgery and anesthesia and the mechanism and severity of injury. Accordingly, we have co-developed an awake closed-head injury (ACHI) model in rats. Here, we aimed to create a temporal profile of the neurobehavioral and neuropathological effects of a single ACHI. Adolescent male rats were placed in a restraint bag and a steel helmet was positioned over the head such that the impact target was centered over the left parietal cortex. Once positioned on a foam platform, a cortical impactor was used to strike the helmet. Sham animals underwent the same procedure without impact. When compared with sham rats, those given a single ACHI displayed evidence of sensorimotor deficits and reduced exploratory behavior within the first 20 min post-injury; however, these effects were resolved after 24 h. A single ACHI impaired spatial memory on the Y-maze task at both 5 min and 24 h post-ACHI; however, no deficits were apparent at 48 h. Immunostaining revealed region-specific increases in ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein expression at 3 days post-impact, with no differences found at either 1 or 14 days. Taken together, our findings indicate that a single ACHI results in transient neurobehavioral and glial disturbances and as such, this model may be a valuable tool for pre-clinical concussion research.

Androgen receptor antagonism accelerates disease onset in the SOD1G93A mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease typically more common in males, implicating androgens in progression of both patients and mouse models. Androgen effects are mediated by androgen receptor which is highly expressed in spinal motor neurons and skeletal muscles. To clarify the role of androgen receptors in ALS, we therefore examined the effect of androgen receptor antagonism in the SOD1G93A mouse model. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The androgen receptor antagonist, flutamide, was administered to presymptomatic SOD1G93A mice as a slow-release subcutaneous implant (5 mg·day-1 ). Testosterone, flutamide, and metabolite levels were measured in blood and spinal cord tissue by LC-MS-MS. Effects on disease onset and progression were assessed using motor function tests, survival, muscle, and neuropathological analyses. KEY RESULTS: Flutamide was metabolised to 2-hydroxyflutamide achieving steady-state plasma levels across the study duration and reached the spinal cord at pharmacologically active concentrations. Flutamide treatment accelerated disease onset and locomotor dysfunction in male SOD1G93A mice, but not female mice, without affecting survival. Analysis of hindlimb muscles revealed exacerbation of myofibre atrophy in male SOD1G93A mice treated with flutamide, although motor neuron pathology was not affected. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: The androgen receptor antagonist accelerated disease onset in male SOD1G93A mice, leading to exacerbated muscle pathology, consistent with a role of androgens in modulating disease severity, sexual dimorphism, and peripheral pathology in ALS. These results also demonstrate a key contribution of skeletal muscle pathology to disease onset, but not outcome, in this mouse model of ALS.

GAL3 receptor knockout mice exhibit an alcohol-preferring phenotype.

Galanin is a neuropeptide which mediates its effects via three G-protein coupled receptors (GAL1-3 ). Administration of a GAL3 antagonist reduces alcohol self-administration in animal models while allelic variation in the GAL3 gene has been associated with an increased risk of alcohol use disorders in diverse human populations. Based on the association of GAL3 with alcoholism, we sought to characterize drug-seeking behavior in GAL3 -deficient mice for the first time. In the two-bottle free choice paradigm, GAL3 -KO mice consistently showed a significantly increased preference for ethanol over water when compared to wildtype littermates. Furthermore, male GAL3 -KO mice displayed significantly increased responding for ethanol under operant conditions. These differences in alcohol seeking behavior in GAL3 -KO mice did not result from altered ethanol metabolism. In contrast to ethanol, GAL3 -KO mice exhibited similar preference for saccharin and sucrose over water, and a similar preference for a high fat diet over a low fat diet as wildtype littermates. No differences in cognitive and locomotor behaviors were observed in GAL3 -KO mice to account for increased alcohol seeking behavior. Overall, these findings suggest genetic ablation of GAL3 in mice increases alcohol consumption.

The galanin receptor-3 antagonist, SNAP 37889, inhibits cue-induced reinstatement of alcohol-seeking and increases c-Fos expression in the nucleus accumbens shell of alcohol-preferring rats.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to investigate the effects of the galanin-3 receptor antagonist, SNAP 37889, on c-Fos protein expression after cue-induced reinstatement of alcohol-seeking in the brains of alcohol-preferring rats. METHODS: Eighteen alcohol-preferring rats were trained to self-administer 10% v/v ethanol in the presence of response-contingent cues, which was followed by extinction. Rats were then treated with SNAP 37889 (30 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle, before being tested for cue-induced reinstatement. Administration of SNAP 37889 reduced cue-induced reinstatement of ethanol-seeking behaviour. To examine the effect of SNAP 37889 and cue-induced reinstatement on neuronal activation, c-Fos expression was measured in subregions of the medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. RESULTS: SNAP 37889 administration increased c-Fos immunoreactivity in the nucleus accumbens shell, but was without effect in the nucleus accumbens core and the medial prefrontal cortex. Dual-label Fos/tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemistry was used to examine the effects of SNAP 37889 on dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area; however, no differences between SNAP 37889 and vehicle-treated rats were found. CONCLUSIONS: These data support previous findings of galanin-3 receptor involvement in cue-induced reinstatement of alcohol-seeking behaviour, and provide novel evidence that the ability of galanin-3 receptor antagonism to attenuate cue-induced reinstatement relates to activation of the nucleus accumbens shell.

Association of Regulatory T-Cell Expansion With Progression of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Study of Humans and a Transgenic Mouse Model.

Importance: Neuroinflammation appears to be a key modulator of disease progression in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and thereby a promising therapeutic target. The CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells (Tregs) infiltrating into the central nervous system suppress neuroinflammation and promote the activation of neuroprotective microglia in mouse models of ALS. To our knowledge, the therapeutic association of host Treg expansion with ALS progression has not been studied in vivo. Objective: To assess the role of Tregs in regulating the pathophysiology of ALS in humans and the therapeutic outcome of increasing Treg activity in a mouse model of the disease. Design, Setting, and Participants: This prospective multicenter human and animal study was performed in hospitals, outpatient clinics, and research institutes. Clinical and function assessment, as well as immunological studies, were undertaken in 33 patients with sporadic ALS, and results were compared with 38 healthy control participants who were consecutively recruited from the multidisciplinary ALS clinic at Westmead Hospital between February 1, 2013, and December 31, 2014. All data analysis on patients with ALS was undertaken between January 2015 and December 2016. Subsequently, we implemented a novel approach to amplify the endogenous Treg population using peripheral injections of interleukin 2/interleukin 2 monoclonal antibody complexes (IL-2c) in transgenic mice that expressed mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), a gene associated with motor neuron degeneration. Main Outcomes and Measures: In patients with ALS, Treg levels were determined and then correlated with disease progression. Circulating T-cell populations, motor neuron size, glial cell activation, and T-cell and microglial gene expression in spinal cords were determined in SOD1G93A mice, as well as the association of Treg amplification with disease onset and survival time in mice. Results: The cohort of patients with ALS included 24 male patients and 9 female patients (mean [SD] age at assessment, 58.9 [10.9] years). There was an inverse correlation between total Treg levels (including the effector CD45RO+ subset) and rate of disease progression (R = -0.40, P = .002). Expansion of the effector Treg population in the SOD1G93A mice was associated with a significant slowing of disease progression, which was accompanied by an increase in survival time (IL-2c-treated mice: mean [SD], 160.6 [10.8] days; control mice: mean [SD], 144.9 [10.6] days; P = .003). Importantly, Treg expansion was associated with preserved motor neuron soma size and marked suppression of astrocytic and microglial immunoreactivity in the spinal cords of SOD1G93A mice, as well as elevated neurotrophic factor gene expression in spinal cord and peripheral nerves. Conclusions and Relevance: These findings establish a neuroprotective effect of Tregs, possibly mediated by suppression of toxic neuroinflammation in the central nervous system. Strategies aimed at enhancing the Treg population and neuroprotective activity from the periphery may prove therapeutically useful for patients with ALS.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) determines a sex difference in cue-conditioned alcohol seeking in rats.

Alcohol use disorder is a detrimental addictive disease that develops through prolonged ethanol exposure and regular intoxication. However, the changes in the underlying neurobiology leading to alcohol addiction remain unclear. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) is implicated in substance abuse disorders including alcoholism. As the vast majority of previous animal model studies have concentrated on males only, the aim of this study was to determine whether endogenous BDNF mediates alcohol seeking in a sex-specific manner. We used an operant self-administration paradigm where the animals were trained in operant chambers to self-administer a 10% ethanol solution, and compared male and female BDNF heterozygous (HET) and wildtype (WT) rats. Over several weeks, the animals progressed through acquisition, progressive ratio, extinction, and reinstatement phases. There were no significant sex or genotype differences in the number of alcohol-paired lever presses during acquisition, progressive ratio and extinction. However, a significant difference between male and female WT rats following alcohol-primed reinstatement was completely absent in BDNF HET rats suggesting a role of BDNF in sex differences in alcohol seeking after abstinence. Female BDNF HET rats showed significantly higher number of alcohol-paired lever presses during reinstatement than female WT controls. These findings suggest that BDNF regulatory pathways are involved in sex differences in reinstatement of alcohol intake and emphasize the need to include both male and female animals to explore sex-specific interactions in addiction neurocircuitry.

The galanin-3 receptor antagonist, SNAP 37889, suppresses alcohol drinking and morphine self-administration in mice.

The neuropeptide, galanin, is widely expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems and is involved in a range of different functions including nociception, neurogenesis, hormone release, reproduction, cognitive function and appetite. Given the overlap between galanin expression and reward circuitry in the brain, galanin has been targeted for alcohol use disorder (AUD) and opioid dependency. Furthermore, the galanin-3 receptor (GAL3) specifically regulates emotional states and plays a role in motivation, reward and drug-seeking behaviour. We have previously shown that the GAL3 antagonist, SNAP 37889, reduces ethanol self-administration and cue-induced re-instatement in alcohol-preferring (iP) rats with no alterations in locomotor activity or anxiety-like behaviour. The aim of this study was to investigate whether SNAP 37889 reduces binge drinking and/or self-administration of morphine in mice. Using the Scheduled High Alcohol Consumption (SHAC) procedure, SNAP 37889 (30 mg/kg) treated mice drank significantly less ethanol, sucrose and saccharin than vehicle treated mice. Using an operant paradigm, SNAP 37889 reduced morphine self-administration but failed to impact cue-induced relapse-like behaviour. SNAP 37889 had no significant effect on locomotor activity, motor co-ordination, anxiety, nor was SNAP 37889 itself positively reinforcing. Liver assays showed that there was no alteration in the rate of hepatic ethanol metabolism between SNAP 37889 and vehicle treated mice suggesting that the reduction in ethanol intake via SNAP 37889 is due to a central effect of GAL3 signalling. This study implicates the GAL3 receptor in consummatory drive which may have wider implications for the treatment of different addictions.

Galanin-3 receptor antagonism by SNAP 37889 reduces motivation to self-administer alcohol and attenuates cue-induced reinstatement of alcohol-seeking in iP rats.

The neuropeptide galanin has a role in promoting alcohol consumption and general feeding behavior. The galanin-3 receptor (GALR3) subtype is implicated in modulating the consumption of alcohol and has therefore been identified as a potential target for new pharmacotherapies to treat alcohol use disorders. We have previously shown that the selective GALR3 antagonist SNAP 37889 reduced voluntary alcohol consumption in iP (alcohol-preferring) rats. The present study firstly aimed to investigate the effect of GALR3 antagonism on the motivational properties of alcohol. Secondly, the potential of GALR3 as a therapeutic target in the prevention of relapse was investigated in response to alcohol-conditioned cues. Administration of SNAP 37889 (30 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the breakpoint for ethanol under a progressive-ratio operant responding schedule of reinforcement. SNAP 37889 also significantly reduced reinstatement of alcohol-seeking in response to re-exposure to conditioned cues that were previously associated with the availability of alcohol. Collectively, results from the current study provide new evidence of GALR3 involvement in cue-induced relapse and provide further evidence that GALR3 antagonism reduces the motivational drive to consume alcohol. These findings validate further research in to the potential use of SNAP 37889 and other GALR3 antagonists to treat alcohol abuse disorders in humans.

An improved method to prepare an injectable microemulsion of the galanin-receptor 3 selective antagonist, SNAP 37889, using Kolliphor(®) HS 15.

Research into the galanin-3 (GAL3) receptor has many challenges, including the lack of commercially available selective ligands. While the identification of non-peptidergic GAL3 receptor-selective antagonists, 1-phenyl-3-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]iminoindol-2-one (SNAP 37889) and 1-[3-(2-pyrrolidin-1-ylethoxy)phenyl]-3-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]iminoindol-2-one (SNAP 398299) have implicated a role for GAL3 receptors in anxiety, depression and drug-seeking behaviour, a major limitation of their use is poor aqueous solubility. Previously we have used 5% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) with 1% hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose in saline to dissolve SNAP 37889 for intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of rats; however this produced a micro-suspension that was not ideal. The injectable formulation of SNAP 37889 was improved as follows:•30% (w/v) Kolliphor(®) HS 15 (Solutol HS(®) 15) and sodium phosphate buffer (0.01 M, pH 7.4) were used as vehicles.•A smooth glass mortar and pestle was used to triturate the Kolliphor(®) HS 15 and SNAP 37889 into a paste before addition to the sodium phosphate buffer at room temperature (RT).•The resulting mixture was vortexed until the paste was fully dissolved and the microemulsion was allowed to sit for 20 min to allow air bubbles to coalesce.

Calorie restriction inhibits relapse behaviour and preference for alcohol within a two-bottle free choice paradigm in the alcohol preferring (iP) rat.

Among its many beneficial effects, calorie restriction (CR) has also been found to reduce anxiety related behavior in the rodent. With heightened levels of stress and anxiety implicated as a key precipitating factor of relapse and alcohol addiction, it was found that a 25% CR in addition to inducing anxiolytic effects also had the capacity to reduce intake of alcohol and inhibit relapse within a model of operant self-administration. The aim of this study was to investigate if a 25% CR would also display similar effects in a two-bottle free choice paradigm, whereby 24 h ad libitum access to both 10% ethanol and water is provided. All animals were initially tested on the elevated plus maze (EPM) and open field test prior to commencing the two-bottle free choice paradigm. Differences between control and CR25% animals demonstrated the anxiolytic effects of CR, with the CR25% group displaying greater percentage of open arm/total arm duration and open arm/total arm entries in the EPM. During the acquisition phase of the two-bottle free choice paradigm, CR25% animals showed a reduced intake of 10% ethanol in ml/kg, in comparison to the control group. Whilst control animals displayed a strong preference for 10% ethanol, the CR25% group consumed both 10% ethanol and water equally with no differences found in total fluid intake between groups. Similarly this was also the case following forced deprivation. In addition to reduced intake and lack of preference for 10% ethanol, CR 25% animals unlike controls failed to display a typical alcohol deprivation effect following abstinence. Taken collectively the results of this study suggest that CR may act as a protective factor against addiction and relapse in the alcohol preferring (iP) rat. In addition, given CR25% animals did not display a preference for 10% ethanol, results also suggest that CR may be altering the hedonic impact of ethanol within this group.

The effects of calorie restriction on operant-responding for alcohol in the alcohol preferring (iP) rat.

Calorie restriction (CR) is well established in the research literature to have several beneficial effects on health and has also been found to induce anxiolytic effects in the rat. Heightened levels of stress and anxiety are often regarded as key precipitating factors of relapse to substance abuse and alcohol addiction. In this study, the potential implication of a 25% CR diet in altering drug-seeking and relapse like behaviour through its capacity to influence anxiolytic-like behavioural changes was investigated.Anxiety was assessed in all rats with the elevated plus maze (EPM) and open field test prior to being trained to operantly self-administer either 10% ethanol, or water. Differences were found between the groups in the percentage of open arm/total arm duration and open arm/total arm entries in the EPM,demonstrating the anxiolytic effects of CR25%. Both control and CR25% groups showed preference for alcohol vs. water, however, controls responded more for alcohol during the conditioning phase than the CR25% group. Controls exhibited an alcohol deprivation-effect (ADE) post abstinence, and a cue-induced reinstatement of alcohol-seeking post extinction however the CR25% did not. These results demonstrate that the anxiolytic effects of CR25% reduces operant responding for ethanol and inhibits relapse behaviour.Taken collectively, the results of this study suggest that in line with past research a CR25% dietary regime can induce anxiolytic effects in the alcohol preferring (iP) rat. Furthermore, it also reduces the intake of ethanol and inhibits the ADE and cue-induced relapse that is characteristic of addiction in this strain.

CREB1 and CREB-binding protein in striatal medium spiny neurons regulate behavioural responses to psychostimulants.

RATIONALE: The transcription factor cAMP responsive element-binding protein 1 (CREB1) has a complex influence on behavioural responses to drugs of abuse which varies depending on the brain region in which it is expressed. In response to drug exposure, CREB1 is phosphorylated in the striatum, a structure that is critically involved in reward-related learning. OBJECTIVE: The present study assessed the role of striatal CREB1 and its coactivator CREB-binding protein (CBP) in behavioural responses to psychostimulants. METHODS: Using the 'cre/lox' recombination system, we generated mice with a postnatal deletion of CREB1 or CBP directed to medium spiny neurons of the striatum. qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry were used to confirm the deletion, and mice were assessed with respect to their locomotor response to acute cocaine (20 mg/kg), cocaine sensitization (10 mg/kg), amphetamine-induced stereotypies (10 mg/kg) and ethanol-induced hypnosis (3.5 g/kg). RESULTS: Here we show that CREB1 mutant mice have increased sensitivity to psychostimulants, an effect that does not generalise to ethanol-induced hypnosis. Furthermore, in the absence of CREB1, there is rapid postnatal upregulation of the related transcription factor CREM, indicating possible redundancy amongst this family of transcription factors. Finally striatal deletion of CBP, a coactivator for the CREB1/CREM signalling pathway, results in an even more increased sensitivity to psychostimulants. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that striatal CREB1 regulates sensitivity to psychostimulants and that CREM acting via CBP is able to partially compensate in the absence of CREB1 signalling.

α(1) adrenergic receptor agonist, phenylephrine, actively contracts early rat rib fracture callus ex vivo.

Early, soft fracture callus that links fracture ends together is smooth muscle-like in nature. We aimed to determine if early fracture callus could be induced to contract and relax ex vivo by similar pathways to smooth muscle, that is, contraction via α(1) adrenergic receptor (α(1) AR) activation with phenylephrine (PE) and relaxation via ß(2) adrenergic receptor (ß(2) AR) stimulation with terbutaline. A sensitive force transducer quantified 7 day rat rib fracture callus responses in modified Krebs-Henseliet (KH) solutions. Unfractured ribs along with 7, 14, and 21 day fracture calluses were analyzed for both α(1) AR and ß(2) AR gene expression using qPCR, whilst 7 day fracture callus was examined via immunohistochemistry for both α(1) AR and ß(2) AR- immunoreactivity. In 7 day callus, PE (10(-6) M) significantly induced an increase in force that was greater than passive force generated in calcium-free KH (n = 8, mean 51% increase, 95% CI: 26-76%). PE-induced contractions in calluses were attenuated by the α(1) AR antagonist, prazosin (10(-6) M; n = 7, mean 5% increase, 95% CI: 2-11%). Terbutaline did not relax callus. Gene expression of α(1) ARs was constant throughout fracture healing; however, ß(2) AR expression was down-regulated at 7 days compared to unfractured rib (p < 0.01). Furthermore, osteoprogenitor cells of early fibrous callus displayed considerable α(1) AR-like immunoreactivity but not ß(2) AR-like immunoreactivity. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that early fracture callus can be pharmacologically induced to contract. We propose that increased concentrations of α(1) AR agonists such as noradrenaline may tonically contract callus in vivo to promote osteogenesis.

The galanin-3 receptor antagonist, SNAP 37889, reduces operant responding for ethanol in alcohol-preferring rats.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: The galanin-3 receptor (GALR3) subtype has been identified as having a role in both feeding behaviour and the regulation of emotional states including anxiety. Despite the evidence for an association between galanin and alcohol, the current study is the first to explore the direct role of GALR3 in this context. The present study investigated the potential of the novel selective GALR3 antagonist, SNAP 37889, to reduce anxiety-like behaviour and voluntary ethanol consumption in the iP (alcohol-preferring) rat. This was achieved through a number of behavioural paradigms testing for anxiety, along with the operant self-administration model. RESULTS: Overall, male iP rats treated with SNAP 37889 at a dose of 30 mg/kg (i.p.) did not show altered locomotor activity or changes in anxiety-like behaviour in the elevated plus maze or light-dark paradigms. Treatment with SNAP 37889 (30 mg/kg, i.p.) reduced operant responding for solutions containing ethanol, sucrose and saccharin. Collectively, results from the current study showed that SNAP 37889 (30 mg/kg, i.p.) is effective in reducing operant responding for ethanol, independent of a sedative effect. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide evidence that GALR3 antagonism reduces alcohol consumption and further suggest that GALR3 may be implicated in the rewarding effects of natural and drug reinforcers.

Metabotropic glutamate 5 receptors regulate sensitivity to ethanol in mice.

The metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu5) has been implicated in ethanol- and drug-seeking behaviours in rodent studies. Here we examine a number of ethanol-related behavioural assays in mice lacking mGlu5 and wild-type littermates. In a two-bottle free-choice paradigm, mGlu5-deficient mice consumed less ethanol with a reduced preference compared to wild-type mice. Indeed, mGlu5-deficienct mice were ethanol-avoiding at both concentrations of ethanol proffered (5% and 10% v/v). However, there was no difference in the rate of hepatic ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism between genotypes and consumption of saccharin was similar. In a conditioned place preference study, mGlu5-deficient mice displayed a place preference for ethanol when conditioned with a low dose (1g/kg) of ethanol. Thus, while mGlu5-deficient mice consume less ethanol (with a reduced preference) than wild-type mice, this is not apparently related to impaired hepatic metabolism or a lack of reward from ethanol. Rather, we provide evidence that deletion of the mGlu5 receptor increases sensitivity to centrally mediated effects of ethanol.

Depressive-like behavior and high alcohol drinking co-occur in the FH/WJD rat but appear to be under independent genetic control.

This review will consider the evidence supporting the view that a specific substrain of Fawn-Hooded rat (FH/Wjd) exhibits co-occurring depressive-like behavior and high alcohol intake independently. First, the FH/Wjd rat is compared with other Fawn-Hooded substrains (FH/Har, FHH/Eur, FHL/Eur) and it is concluded that only the FH/Wjd rat is both highly immobile in the forced swim test and drinks substantial amounts of 5-10% alcohol voluntarily. Next it is demonstrated that the FH/Wjd rat fulfils many of the criteria proposed for an animal model of alcoholism (becomes tolerant, becomes dependent and expresses withdrawal symptoms, bar-presses for alcohol). Other literature in addition to the high swim test immobility suggests that the FH/Wjd rat may also be an animal model of depression (high basal corticosterone levels, blunted hormonal responses to serotonergic agonists). To study the phenotypes more closely an inbred strain (ACI/N) of rat that drank little alcohol voluntarily and exhibited considerable swimming in the forced swim test (i.e., low immobility) was obtained. A systematic intercrossing of the parental strains and the resulting F1 progeny was carried out to generate more than 800 F2s. Swim test immobility, alcohol intake and preference and saccharin intake are four of the 7 variables assessed in each of these rats. Using classical quantitative genetics methods, it was determined that these four phenotypes exhibited modest heritability and were influenced by multiple genes. Correlation coefficients between immobility and the other measures were near zero, whereas alcohol intake and preference were highly correlated (r=0.9) and alcohol and saccharin intakes were modestly correlated (r=0.3). A final study showed that chronic fluoxetine treatment counteracted the high immobility but did not affect alcohol intake, similar to human studies. These findings suggest that although depressive-like behavior and high alcohol intake co-occur in the FH/Wjd rat, they are independently regulated.