Super-resolution microscopy reveals stochastic initiation of replication in Drosophila polytene chromosomes.

Studying the probability distribution of replication initiation along a chromosome is a huge challenge. Drosophila polytene chromosomes in combination with super-resolution microscopy provide a unique opportunity for analyzing the probabilistic nature of replication initiation at the ultrastructural level. Here, we developed a method for synchronizing S-phase induction among salivary gland cells. An analysis of the replication label distribution in the first minutes of S phase and in the following hours after the induction revealed the dynamics of replication initiation. Spatial super-resolution structured illumination microscopy allowed identifying multiple discrete replication signals and to investigate the behavior of replication signals in the first minutes of the S phase at the ultrastructural level. We identified replication initiation zones where initiation occurs stochastically. These zones differ significantly in the probability of replication initiation per time unit. There are zones in which initiation occurs on most strands of the polytene chromosome in a few minutes. In other zones, the initiation on all strands takes several hours. Compact bands are free of replication initiation events, and the replication runs from outer edges to the middle, where band shapes may alter.

Effects of Mutations in the Drosophila melanogaster Rif1 Gene on the Replication and Underreplication of Pericentromeric Heterochromatin in Salivary Gland Polytene Chromosomes.

In Drosophila salivary gland polytene chromosomes, a substantial portion of heterochromatin is underreplicated. The combination of mutations SuURES and Su(var)3-906 results in the polytenization of a substantial fraction of unique and moderately repeated sequences but has almost no effect on satellite DNA replication. The Rap1 interacting factor 1 (Rif) protein is a conserved regulator of replication timing, and in Drosophila, it affects underreplication in polytene chromosomes. We compared the morphology of pericentromeric regions and labeling patterns of in situ hybridization of heterochromatin-specific DNA probes between wild-type salivary gland polytene chromosomes and the chromosomes of Rif1 mutants and SuUR Su(var)3-906 double mutants. We show that, despite general similarities, heterochromatin zones exist that are polytenized only in the Rif1 mutants, and that there are zones that are under specific control of Su(var)3-9. In the Rif1 mutants, we found additional polytenization of the largest blocks of satellite DNA (in particular, satellite 1.688 of chromosome X and simple satellites in chromosomes X and 4) as well as partial polytenization of chromosome Y. Data on pulsed incorporation of 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) into polytene chromosomes indicated that in the Rif1 mutants, just as in the wild type, most of the heterochromatin becomes replicated during the late S phase. Nevertheless, a significantly increased number of heterochromatin replicons was noted. These results suggest that Rif1 regulates the activation probability of heterochromatic origins in the satellite DNA region.