Retail lighting and packaging influence consumer acceptance of fluid milk.

Little is known about the effect of retail light-emitting diode (LED) exposure on consumer acceptance of milk. The study objective was to determine effects of fluorescent and LED lighting under retail storage conditions on consumer acceptance of milk. Consumer acceptance of milk stored under retail conditions was determined through sensory evaluation (2 studies; n=150+ each) and analytical measures (dissolved oxygen, secondary oxidation products, riboflavin retention). Study 1 evaluated milk stored in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) packages for 4h under LED light (960 lx). Commercially available HDPE package treatments included translucent HDPE (most commonly used), white HDPE [low concentration (1.3%) TiO2], and yellow HDPE; in addition, HDPE with a higher TiO2 concentration (high white; 4.9% TiO2) and a foil-wrapped translucent HDPE (control) were tested. Translucent and control packages also were tested under fluorescent light. Study 2 evaluated polyethylene terephthalate (PET) packages for 4h under fluorescent and LED light (1,460 lx). The PET packaging included 2 treatments (medium, 4.0% TiO2; high, 6.6% TiO2) as well as translucent HDPE (exposed to fluorescent), clear PET (fluorescent and LED), and light-protected control. Overall mean acceptability of milk ranged from "like slightly" to "like moderately" with significantly lower acceptability for milk exposed to fluorescent light. Milk in HDPE and PET packages had comparable overall acceptability scores when exposed to LED light. Only the fluorescent light condition (both PET and HDPE) diminished overall acceptability. Fluorescent light exposure negatively influenced flavor with significant penalty (2.0-2.5 integers) to overall acceptability of milk in translucent HDPE and clear PET. The LED also diminished aftertaste of milk packaged in translucent HDPE. Changes in dissolved oxygen content, as an indication of oxidation, supported the observed differences in consumer acceptance of milk stored under fluorescent and LED light. Consumers like the flavor of fresh milk, which can be protected by selecting appropriate packaging that blocks detrimental light wavelengths.

Packaging modifications for protecting flavor of extended-shelf-life milk from light.

The effectiveness of titanium dioxide (TiO2)-loaded high-density polyethylene (HDPE) to reduce light-induced oxidation of extended-shelf-life milk (2% total fat) was studied. The objective was to determine differences over time in sensory quality, vitamin retention, and oxidative chemistry as a function of packaging and retail light exposure duration. Effectiveness of packaging for protecting milk quality was assessed by sensory evaluation (triangle tests, untrained panel), changes in volatile compounds, thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS), and riboflavin concentration. Milk (2%) was stored in HDPE packages consisting of TiO2 at 3 levels (low: 0.6%; medium: 1.3%; high: 4.3%) at 3 °C for up to 43 d. Light-protected (translucent, foil-wrapped) and light-exposed (translucent) HDPE packages served as controls. The high TiO2-HDPE package provided protection similar to light-protected control package through d 22 of light exposure, with less consistent performance by the medium TiO2 package. The TBARS increased in all treatments during storage. Under the experimental conditions used, a TBARS value of 1.3mg/L could be considered the limiting sensory threshold for differentiating oxidized milk from light-protected milk. Riboflavin concentration decreased 10.5% in the light-protected control and 28.5% in the high TiO2 packaged milk past 29 d of light exposure, but losses were greater than 40% for all other packages. The high TiO2 package protected riboflavin concentration from degradation and controlled aldehyde concentration throughout the test period.

Effects of mineral content of bovine drinking water: does iron content affect milk quality?

The composition of water given to dairy cattle is often ignored, yet water is a very important nutrient and plays a major role in milk synthesis. The objective of this study was to study effects of elevated levels of iron in bovine drinking water on milk quality. Ferrous lactate treatments corresponding to 0, 2, 5, and 12.5mg/kg drinking water concentrations were delivered through the abomasum at 10 L/d to 4 lactating dairy cows over 4 periods (1 wk infusion/period) in a Latin square design. On d 6 of infusion, milk was collected, processed (homogenized, pasteurized), and analyzed. Mineral content (Fe, Cu, P, Ca) was measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Oxidative stability of whole processed milk was measured by the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay for malondialdehyde (MDA) and sensory analysis (triangle test) within 72 h of processing and after 7d of storage (4°C). Significant sensory differences between processed milks from cows receiving iron and the control infusion were observed. No differences in TBARS (1.46±0.04 mg of MDA/kg) or mineral content (0.22±0.01 mg/kg Fe) were observed. A 2-way interaction (iron treatment by cow) for Ca, Cu, and Fe concentrations was seen. While iron added directly to milk causes changes in oxidation of milk, high levels of iron given to cattle have subtle effects that initially may not be obvious.

Oxidative stability of an extended shelf-life dairy-based beverage system designed to contribute to heart health.

Skim milk, butter-derived aqueous phase, butter oil, and fish oil (3 levels) were used to produce UHT pasteurized n-3 fatty acid-fortified beverages (3.1% fat, 3.9% protein, and 11.5% total solids) with targeted deliveries of 200, 500, and 800 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (combined total) per 250 mL (8 fl oz) serving. Microbial quality, emulsion stability, and oxidation of lipids over 35 d of storage at 4 °C were evaluated. Conjugated diene hydroperoxides were below 1% throughout storage and were found at highest concentrations around d 21 of storage for all formulations. Volatile analysis indicated an increase in 1-penten-3-ol in the n-3 fortified dairy-based beverage systems during storage. Triangle tests were conducted to determine if consumers could detect a difference in aroma, compared with commercially processed aseptically packaged milk. The beverage system with targeted delivery of 500 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid + docosahexaenoic acid per 250-mL serving was not different in aroma compared with commercially available UHT processed milk. This formulation delivered 432 mg of heart-healthy n-3 fatty acids per 250-mL serving on d 35 and was microbiologically and physically stable throughout the 35-d refrigerated storage period.

Consumer perception and sensory effect of oxidation in savory-flavored yogurt enriched with n-3 lipids.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of different oils (butter, fish, and oxidized fish) on sensory characteristics of a savory [chile-lime (CL)] low-fat yogurt using descriptive (unstructured line scales, 5 attributes) and affective (hedonic) sensory testing methods. Yogurts were each manufactured at low [1.1-1.2% total fat; 0.43% added oil (wt/wt)] or high [1.6% total fat; 1% added oil (wt/wt)] levels of fish oil, with high levels of fish oil targeted to deliver 145 mg of docosahexaenoic acid+eicosapentaenoic acid/170 g of yogurt. In a preliminary study, untrained panelists (n=31), using triangle tests, did not discriminate between low levels of fish and butter oils in unflavored yogurts but could discern yogurt with oxidized fish oil, even at the low level. Trained panelists (n=12) described lower lime and acid flavor characteristics in CL-flavored yogurts containing 1% oxidized fish oil compared with yogurts containing low levels of oxidized fish oil and low or high levels of butter and fish oils. Oxidized flavor was higher in CL-flavored yogurts with oxidized fish oil (low and high) and with the high level of fish oil. Consumer ratings (n=100; 9-point hedonic scale; 9="like extremely) of overall acceptability and flavor acceptability were bimodally distributed, with overall means between 4 and 5 ("neither like nor dislike") for CL-flavored yogurt with butter or fish oils (high level). The upper 50% of responses for yogurt with butter or fish oil were 6.51 and 6.31, respectively, for overall acceptability ("like slightly"), and 7.02 and 6.56, respectively, for flavor acceptability. A large segment of consumers may be interested in incorporating heart-healthy n-3 lipids in their diets through frequent consumption of a savory yogurt enriched with n-3 fatty acids.

Controlled release of α-tocopherol, quercetin, and their cyclodextrin inclusion complexes from linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) films into a coconut oil model food system.

Polymer additive migration into a food product is dependent upon numerous factors including the original concentration of the additive in the polymer, its solubility in the food, its diffusion coefficient in the polymer, its partition coefficient between the polymer and food, temperature, and time. The limited solubility of quercetin in linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) did not allow release from the film due to phase segregation of the quercetin in the bulk polymer. Increasing the molecular weight of α-tocopherol by ß-cyclodextrin inclusion complexation can greatly reduce its diffusion coefficient in LLDPE. Ziegler-Natta and metallocene LLDPE contain different crystalline structure morphologies and diffusion path networking arrangements that allow for differences in additive release rates. Effective controlled-release packaging should combine ß-cyclodextrin complexation of additives and polymer morphology control to target delivery of an optimal antioxidant concentration to achieve prolonged activity, resulting in extended shelf life foods.

Controlling light oxidation flavor in milk by blocking riboflavin excitation wavelengths by interference.

Milk packaged in glass bottles overwrapped with iridescent films (treatments blocked either a single visible riboflavin [Rb] excitation wavelength or all visible Rb excitation wavelengths; all treatments blocked UV Rb excitation wavelengths) was exposed to fluorescent lighting at 4 degrees C for up to 21 d and evaluated for light-oxidized flavor. Controls consisted of bottles with no overwrap (light-exposed treatment; represents the light barrier properties of the glass packaging) and bottles overwrapped with aluminum foil (light-protected treatment). A balanced incomplete block multi-sample difference test, using a ranking system and a trained panel, was used for evaluation of light oxidation flavor intensity. Volatiles were evaluated by gas chromatography and Rb degradation was evaluated by fluorescence spectroscopy. Packaging overwraps limited production of light oxidation flavor over time but not to the same degree as the complete light block. Blocking all visible and UV Rb excitation wavelengths reduced light oxidation flavor better than blocking only a single visible excitation wavelength plus all UV excitation wavelengths. Rb degraded over time in all treatments except the light-protected control treatment and only minor differences in the amount of degradation among treatments was observed. Hexanal production was significantly higher in the light-exposed control treatment compared to the light-protected control treatment from day 7; it was only sporadically significantly higher in the 570 nm and 400 nm block treatments. Pentanal, heptanal, and an unidentified volatile compound also increased in concentration over time, but there were no significant differences in concentration among the packaging overwrap treatments for these compounds.

Effects of ultraviolet irradiation on chemical and sensory properties of goat milk.

Sensory and chemical consequences of treating goat milk using an UV fluid processor were assessed. Milk was exposed to UV for a cumulative exposure time of 18 s and targeted UV dose of 15.8 +/- 1.6 mJ/cm2. A triangle test revealed differences between the odor of raw milk and UV irradiated milk. Oxidation and hydrolytic rancidity was measured by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and acid degree values (ADV). As UV dose increased, there was an increase in thiobarbituric acid reactive substance values and ADV of the milk samples. A separate set of samples were processed using the fluid processor but with no UV exposure to see if lipase activity and agitation from pumping contributed to the differences in odor. The ADV increased at the same rate as samples exposed to UV; however, sensory studies indicated that the increase of free fatty acids was not enough to cause detectable differences in the odor of milk. Solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography were utilized for the analysis of volatile compounds as a result of UV exposure. There was an increase in the concentration of pentanal, hexanal, and heptanal (relative to raw goat milk) after as little as 1.3 mJ/cm2 UV dose. Ultraviolet irradiation at the wavelength 254 nm produced changes in the sensory and chemical properties of fluid goat milk.

Minerals in drinking water: impacts on taste and importance to consumer health.

More than 100 years of research has focused on removing acute and chronic health threats to produce safe drinking water, but limited research has focused the consequences of removing minerals that affect drinking water taste and health. This paper covers the human sense of taste, typical variations in drinking water taste, comparisons of global taste standards, the role of water chemistry and future research needs for understanding consumer preference. Results of several consumer tap and bottled water acceptability investigations conducted by the authors are presented.

Processing effects on physicochemical properties of creams formulated with modified milk fat.

Type of thermal process [high temperature, short time pasteurization (HTST) or ultra-high temperature pasteurization (UHT)] and homogenization sequence (before or after pasteurization) were examined for influence on the physicochemical properties of natural cream (20% milk fat) and creams formulated with 20% low-melt, fractionated butteroil emulsified with skim milk, or buttermilk and butter-derived aqueous phase. Homogenization sequence influenced physicochemical makeup of the creams. Creams homogenized before pasteurization contained more milk fat surface material, higher phospholipid levels, and less protein at the milk fat interface than creams homogenized after pasteurization. Phosphodiesterase I activity was higher (relative to protein on lipid globule surface) when cream was homogenized before pasteurization. Creams formulated with skim milk and modified milk fat had relatively more phospholipid adsorbed at the milk fat interface. Ultra-high-temperature-pasteurized natural and reformulated creams were higher in viscosity at all shear rates investigated compared with HTST-pasteurized creams. High-temperature, short time-pasteurized natural cream was more viscous than HTST-pasteurized reformulated creams at most shear rates investigated. High-temperature, short time-pasteurized creams had better emulsion stability than UHT-pasteurized creams. Cream formulated with buttermilk had creaming stability most comparable to natural cream, and cream formulated with skim milk and modified butteroil was least stable to creaming. Most creams feathered in a pH range of 5.00 to 5.20, indicating that they were moderately stable to slightly unstable emulsions. All processing sequences yielded creams within sensory specifications with the exception of treatments homogenized before UHT pasteurization and skim milk formulations homogenized after UHT pasteurization.

Effect of antioxidant (alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid) fortification on light-induced flavor of milk.

The effectiveness of added antioxidants against oxidation off-flavor development in light-exposed milk was evaluated using sensory and chemical analysis. Sensory testing for similarity showed no perceivable difference between control milk and milk with added (1) 0.05% alpha-tocopherol (TOC) and (2) 0.025% alpha-tocopherol and 0.025% ascorbic acid (TOC/ASC), but did demonstrate a perceivable difference when adding (3) 0.05% ascorbic acid (ASC) alone. Subsequently, sensory testing for difference showed a significant difference in oxidation off-flavor between light-exposed control milk and light-exposed milk with added TOC/ASC, whereas milk fortified with TOC was not different from control. Gas chromatography-olfactometry showed that more aroma-active flavor compounds were observed in light-exposed milk treated with TOC and TOC/ASC than light-exposed milk with no added antioxidants. The thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) test verified chemically the extent of oxidation in control and antioxidant-treated milk samples. Milk that was exposed to light for 10 h showed a significantly higher TBARS value (0.92 +/- 0.09 mg/kg) than milk that was protected from light (0.59 +/- 0.184 mg/kg), or milk that was treated with TOC/ASC (0.26 +/- 0.092 mg/kg). Direct addition of low levels of antioxidants (TOC/ASC) to milk protected its flavor over 10 h of light exposed storage.

Aroma analysis of light-exposed milk stored with and without natural and synthetic antioxidants.

The effect of antioxidants, added in a single initial dose or in weekly additions to extended shelf life milk, was evaluated over 6 wk of lighted storage at 4 degrees C. Light-induced oxidation was measured by determining pentanal, hexanal, heptanal, and 1-octen-3-ol contents. Weekly addition of a combination of butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene (100 mg/kg of milk fat, each) maintained heptanal content of milk at levels comparable to light-protected milk, whereas an initial single addition of alpha-tocopherol significantly decreased hexanal content over the first 4 wk of storage. Odor-active compounds associated with light-induced oxidation included 2,3-butanedione, pentanal, dimethyl disulfide, hexanal, 1-hexanol, heptanal, 1-heptanol, and nonanal. The addition of butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene in a single initial addition resulted in decreases in pentanal and hexanal odor, but not in heptanal and 1-heptanol odor, whereas the addition of alpha-tocopherol and ascorbyl palmitate decreased pentanal and heptanol odor, but not hexanal and heptanal odor.

Physical properties of cream reformulated with fractionated milk fat and milk-derived components.

Emulsifying properties of milk-derived components influence the physical characteristics of reformulated creams. Fractionated butter oils with different melting ranges (low-melt: 10 to 25 degrees C; medium-melt: 25 to 35 degrees C) were recombined into fluid dairy systems using skim milk, or sweet buttermilk and butter-derived aqueous phase to manufacture 20% milk fat creams. Separation temperature (49 degrees C or 55 degrees C) in obtaining emulsifying components was examined for its effect on physical properties of pasteurized reformulated creams. Rate of creaming, viscosity, feathering, and sensory characteristics of reformulated and natural creams stored at 3.3 degrees C were evaluated over a 13-d period. Creaming rate of reformulated and natural creams was unaffected by formulation and was most influenced by duration of storage. Melting characteristics of butter oils influenced viscosity at some shear rates. With the exception of natural cream, all formulations were consistent in apparent viscosity during the 2-wk storage period. All creams feathered in a pH range of 4.70 to 5.20 and were classified as moderately stable to slightly unstable. All reformulated and natural creams met sensory quality specifications with the exception of creams formulated with skim milk and lower melting range butteroil. Creams formulated with buttermilk, butter-derived aqueous phase, and lower-melting range butter oil most closely mimicked natural creams with regard to sensory quality and viscosity.

Oxidation and textural characteristics of butter and ice cream with modified fatty acid profiles.

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate oxidation and firmness of butter and ice cream made with modified milkfat containing enhanced amounts of linoleic acid or oleic acid. The influence of the fatty acid profile of the HO milkfat relating to product properties as compared with the influence the fatty acid profile of the HL milkfat was the main focus of the research. Altering the degree of unsaturation in milkfat may affect melting characteristics and oxidation rates, leading to quality issues in dairy products. Three milkfat compositions (high-oleic, high-linoleic, and control) were obtained by modifying the diets of Holstein cows. Ice cream and butter were processed from milkfat obtained from cows in each dietary group. Butter and ice cream samples were analyzed to determine fatty acid profile and firmness. High-oleic milkfat resulted in a softer butter. Solid fat index of high-oleic and high-linoleic milkfat was lower than the control. Control ice cream mix had higher viscosity compared with high-oleic and high-linoleic, but firmness of all ice creams was similar when measured between -17 and -13 degrees C. Nutritional and textural properties of butter and ice cream can be improved by modifying the diets of cows.

Effectiveness of poly(ethylene terephthalate) and high-density polyethylene in protection of milk flavor.

The development of certain off-flavors in whole milk (3.25% milk fat) as related to packaging material [glass, high-density polyethylene (HDPE), amber poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PETE), clear PETE, and clear PETE-UV] were evaluated after exposure to fluorescent light (1100 to 1300 lx) for 18 d at 4 degrees C. Control samples packaged and stored under identical conditions were wrapped in foil to prevent light exposure. Selected flavor compounds in milk were measured analytically on d 0, 7, 14, and 18 of storage, while intensities of "oxidation," "acetaldehyde," and "lacks freshness" off-flavors were determined by sensory analysis at the same intervals. In light-exposed samples, oxidation off-flavor was significantly lower when packaged in amber PETE versus other containers. Milk packaged in HDPE containers showed a significantly higher level of oxidation off-flavor than milk packaged in PETE-UV containers but not higher than clear PETE or glass containers. No significant difference in acetaldehyde off-flavor was found between package material treatments (exposed or protected). Acetaldehyde concentration never exceeded flavor threshold levels, regardless of packaging material. Amber and PETE-UV materials proved to be a competitive packaging choice for milk in preserving fresh milk flavor.

Flavor threshold for acetaldehyde in milk, chocolate milk, and spring water using solid phase microextraction gas chromatography for quantification.

The detection threshold of acetaldehyde was determined on whole, lowfat, and nonfat milks, chocolate-flavored milk, and spring water. Knowledge of the acetaldehyde threshold is important because acetaldehyde forms in milk during storage as a result of light oxidation. It is also a degradation product of poly(ethylene terephthalate) during melt processing, a relatively new packaging choice for milk and water. There was no significant difference in the acetaldehyde threshold in milk of various fat contents, with thresholds ranging from 3939 to 4040 ppb. Chocolate-flavored milk and spring water showed thresholds of 10048 and 167 ppb, respectively, which compares favorably with previous studies. Solid phase microextraction (SPME) was verified as an effective method for the recovery of acetaldehyde in all media with detection levels as low as 200 and 20 ppb in milk and water, respectively, when using a polydimethyl siloxane/Carboxen SPME fiber in static headspace at 45 degrees C for 15 min.

Tenderization of chicken and turkey breasts with electrically produced hydrodynamic shockwaves.

Eighty early deboned (45 min, post mortem) postrigor chicken breasts were exposed (24 h post mortem) to two levels (number of pulse firing networks, PFN; 45% energy) of electrically produced hydrodynamic shockwaves (HSW). In addition, 21 turkey breasts (72 h post mortem) were HSW treated (two PFN, 72% energy). Samples were water cooked in bags (78°C internal). Two PFN's were required to decrease (P<0.05) chicken Warner-Bratzler shear (WBS) force by 22% from the control (4.67 kg). WBS force of the HSW treated turkey breast decreased (P<0.05) by 12% from the control (3.20 kg). Cooking loss was higher (P<0.05) in the turkey breast portions but not in the chicken breasts. The electrically produced shockwave process has the potential to provide chicken processors with the ability to early debone and produce tender breasts and to provide turkey processors with tenderness-enhanced fillets.

Hydrodynamic shockwave tenderization effects using a cylinder processor on early deboned broiler breasts.

In separate experiments, chicken broiler breasts were deboned (45 min postmortem, 52 min, respectively) and either exposed to high pressure hydrodynamic shockwaves (HSW) 25 min after deboning (77 min postmortem) or after 24 h of storage (4°C) respectively, and compared to companion control breasts. HSW were produced in a cylindrical HSW processor with 40-g explosive. Warner-Bratzler shear (WBS) values of the HSW breasts treated at 77 min postmortem were not different than the controls. HSW treatment decreased (P<0.05) the WBS values of the stored and cooked breasts by 42.0% as compared to non-treated controls. Cooking losses were not affected by HSW. In general, raw and cooked color characteristics (CIE L*a*b*) were not affected by the HSW. HSW treatment at 25 min after deboning (77 min postmortem) may require a higher pressure front or delayed treatment after postmortem aging to improve tenderness.

Probiotic culture survival and implications in fermented frozen yogurt characteristics.

Low-fat ice cream mix was fermented with probiotic-supplemented and traditional starter culture systems and evaluated for culture survival, composition, and sensory characteristics of frozen product. Fermentations were stopped when the titratable acidity reached 0.15% greater than the initial titratable acidity (end point 1) or when the pH reached 5.6 (end point 2). Mix was frozen and stored for 11 wk at -20 degrees C. The traditional yogurt culture system contained the strains Streptococcus salivarius ssp. thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus. The probiotic-supplemented system contained the traditional cultures as well as Bifidobacterium longum and Lactobacillus acidophilus. We compared recovery of Bifodobacterium by three methods, a repair-detection system with roll-tubes and plates on modified bifid glucose medium and plates with maltose + galactose reinforced clostridial medium. Culture bacteria in both systems did not decrease in the yogurt during frozen storage. The roll-tube method with modified bifid glucose agar and repair detection system provided at least one-half log10 cfu/ml higher recovery of B. longum compared with recoveries using modified bifid glucose agar or maltose + galactose reinforced clostridial agar on petri plates. No change in concentrations of lactose or protein for products fermented with either culture system occurred during storage. Acid flavor was more intense when product was fermented to pH 5.6, but yogurt flavor was not intensified. The presence of probiotic bacteria in the supplemented system seemed to cause no differences in protein and lactose concentration and sensory characteristics.

Quality and sensory characteristics of selected post-rigor, early deboned broiler breast meat tenderized using hydrodynamic shock waves.

Our first objective was to determine the effects of explosive amount and distance of the explosive to the meat surface in the Hydrodyne process on broiler breast tenderness. Early deboned (EB) breasts were removed immediately after initial chill (45 min postmortem), stored for 24 h (4 C), and subjected to one of four Hydrodyne treatments (200 g at 20 cm, 350 g at 23 cm, 275 g at 20 cm, or 350 g at 20 cm). Breasts were water-cooked (78 C internal). Hydrodyne treatment (HYD) of 350 g at 20 cm produced the greatest reduction (28.3%) in Warner-Bratzler shear (WBS, 1.9-cm wide strips). This combination was the only treatment to improve tenderness (peak force 4.3 kg) to a level equivalent (P > 0.05) to aged controls (CA; peak force 3.1 kg). The second objective was to determine the quality and sensory characteristics of Hydrodyne-treated (350 g explosive at 20 cm) broiler breasts as compared with CA and EB. The WBS values (1.0-cm wide and thick strips) for CA (1.56 kg) were different from both HYD (3.7 kg) and EB breasts (4.7 kg). The CA resulted in more tender, flavorful, and juicer breasts than EB and HYD. The EB was higher in initial moisture release than HYD. The EB breasts with tenderness problems can be tenderized by the Hydrodyne process based on WBS results. However, higher levels of explosive may be required to optimize the tenderness improvement of EB breasts that vary significantly in initial tenderness.