[A Community-Based Concept for the Promotion of Health and Physical Activity in Children at Early School Age]. / Ein kommunales Konzept zur Förderung der Gesundheit und Bewegungsaktivitäten von 8- bis 12-jährigen Schülern.

We promoted children's physical activity through a municipal and behaviour-modifying approach in districts with deprived backgrounds. Using regular lessons, movement activities were performed with 316 pupils in their district once a month for 2 years. Meetings of involved parents, teachers and municipal representatives were held every 2 months to improve playgrounds and areas suitable for children's leisure activities. Questionnaires showed children's well-being to be correlated with physical outdoor activity, social contact with friends, regular dinners on school days and lower TV consumption.

[Lead pollution of drinking water in lower Saxony from corrosion of pipe materials]. / Die Bleibelastung des niedersächsischen Trinkwassers verursacht durch Korrosion von Rohrleitungsmaterialien.

BACKGROUND: The corrosion of drinking water pipe materials can release different elements into tap water. Especially important in this context is the heavy metal lead, which mainly leaches from the peripheral water distribution system. Lead is known to have numerous adverse effects especially to infants and children. AIM AND METHOD: The aim of this project was to assess the present state of drinking water contamination with lead in Lower Saxony and to promote the replacement of lead pipes. For this purpose a project was initiated comprising three parts. Firstly, a free examination of drinking water was offered in cooperation with local public health departments for private households with young women and families with children living in buildings constructed before 1974. Participants were asked to collect a cold tap water sample in their household after nocturnal stagnation and to complete a questionnaire. The collected samples were analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry for their lead concentration. Secondly, data from local public health departments on results of lead measurements, especially in buildings for the public, were collected and analysed. Finally, a working group 'lead replacement' consisting of representatives of all relevant parties (e.g., tenant and landlord associations, handicraft, building and health administration) was initiated. RESULTS: In the project in total 2,901 tap water samples from households were collected between the years 2005 and 2007. Of these, 7.5% had lead concentrations exceeding 10 microg/L (recommended limit of the World Health Organisation) and 3.3% had concentrations above the limit of the German drinking water ordinance (25 microg/L). There were remarkable regional differences in the frequency of tap water contamination. Multi-family houses were more frequently affected than single and double family houses. Additional data were collected in a preceding study in southern Lower Saxony. Of the 1 434 stagnation samples, 3.1% had lead concentrations greater than 10 microg/L and 0.6% had concentrations above the former limit of the German drinking water regulations of 40 microg/L.

Tissue calcium content in piglets with inguinal or scrotal hernias or cryptorchidism.

Scrotal and inguinal hernias are of great economic importance to the pig industry. These lesions are thought to result from incomplete closure of the inguinal ring and/or a patent processus vaginalis. Impairment of programmed cell death (PCD) may be involved in these abnormalities. As tissue Ca(2+) overload may be used as a measure of cell death, the aim of this study was to determine the tissue Ca(2+) content in samples of hernia sac, peritoneum, cremaster muscle and aqueous fluid from newborn piglets with scrotal or inguinal hernias (n=18) or cryptorchidism (n=18). Control samples from healthy piglets (n=20) were also evaluated. Tissue Ca(2+) content was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Significantly less Ca(2+) was found in the sacs (0.005 mg/g wt), peritoneal tissue (0.100 mg/g wt) and cremaster muscles (0.008 mg/g wt) of piglets with inguinal or scrotal hernias compared with control tissues (0.184, 0.144 and 0.048 mg/g wt for sacs, peritoneal tissue and cremaster muscles, respectively). These findings suggest that there may be perturbation of the apoptotic pathway in the urogenital tissues of affected piglets.

Influence of antimonite, selenite, and mercury on the toxicity of arsenite in primary rat hepatocytes.

The long-term toxicity of arsenic (As) as a result of exposure to contaminated drinking water might be modified by coinciding exposures to elements like selenium, antimony, or mercury. In this study the influence of tetravalent selenite, trivalent antimonite, and divalent mercury was investigated in vitro using cultured primary rat hepatocytes. The cell vitality was assessed in the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] (MTT), assay with concurrent exposures of the cells to up to 50 microM sodium arsenite(III) and a potential modifier [50 microM sodium(IV) selenite, 10 microM antimony(III) chloride, 25 microM mercuric(II) chloride], which indicated an additive increase in the combined cytotoxicity. Sodium arsenite was tested for genotoxicity in the micronucleus test in a concentration range of 0.25 up to 7.5 microM. In this range, the MTT conversion was at least 80%, indicating high cell viability. Adose-dependent induction of micronuclei was observed. The lowest concentration causing a significantly elevated frequency of micronuclei was 1 microM As (p < 0.05). A significant influence (i.e., reduction of the combined genotoxicity as a result of the presence of a potential modifier) was only observed for 10 and 25 microM antimony chloride (p < 0.05, Fisher's exact test). The metabolic methylation of arsenite was not affected by concurrent incubation with any of the potential modifiers.

Isolation and characterization of Legionella spp. and Pseudomonas spp. from greenhouse misting systems.

AIMS: Greenhouse misting systems used for watering plants produce fine aerosols. They are a possible cause for bacterial infections. This study investigates the colonization of greenhouse misting systems with Legionella spp. and Pseudomonas spp. and evaluates a possible health hazard. METHODS AND RESULTS: Between June and September 2003, a total of 80 water samples were collected in 20 different greenhouse systems in Germany, each tested on two different occasions. Each time, water was drawn at a central tap and at the outlet of spray nozzles. Sampled greenhouses were used to cultivate various plants and trees for commercial, recreational or scientific reasons, some of them in tropical conditions. Legionella spp. were detected in 10% of the systems (two systems), but only in low numbers. On the contrary, Pseudomonas spp. were recovered from 70% of the greenhouse watering systems (14 systems), occasionally at counts greater than 10,000 CFU per 100 ml. A random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction typing method was used to demonstrate that each colonized greenhouse had one or several individual strains of Legionella and Pseudomonas that could not be detected in any other system. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that aerosolizing greenhouse watering systems may be contaminated with Legionella or Pseudomonas which under certain circumstances could become a potential source of infection for workers and visitors. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The study results indicate that greenhouse misting systems should be included in Legionella and Pseudomonas monitoring and control programs.

[A new method of testing the effectiveness of sterile packaging in general practice]. / Eine neue Methode zur Wirksamkeitsprüfung von Sterilgutverpackungen in der Praxis.

The aim of our study was to develop a practical test for assessing the effectiveness of the microbial barrier of packaging materials for sterile products. The suitability of the test was verified in the exemplary case of double-wrapped sterilized trays. During testing, the bacterial count of the ambient air was 35 and 440 colony-forming units/cubic metre. The test is based on the co-sterilization in the sterile packing of petri dishes containing CASO agar, which at the end of the test were investigated for re-contamination. The petri dishes covered the sterilizing sieves as completely as possible. After sterilization, the packaging was loaded 300 to 900 times at a pressure of 1 kg (5x/min). This was followed by incubation for 48 hours at 37 degrees C, and evaluation (No. of colonies). The ability of the agar to culture colonies of bacteria was preserved unchanged for a period of at least 3 weeks after sterilization. For double-wrapped trays it was shown that re-contamination increases with intensity of mechanical loading and the atmospheric bacterial count. Since the package was breached only for the analysis, confounding factors due to removal of contents for examination, were effectively excluded. This test procedure is characterised by simplicity in handling and high specificity. As a final pack test it effectively closes a gap in the quality assurance chain for sterile materials.

Lead contamination in tap water of households with children in Lower Saxony, Germany.

Lead has numerous acute and chronic adverse effects on human beings. This is especially true for infants and children. The main path of lead ingestion in children can be different according to housing and living situation. The intake of lead through drinking water is commonly due to metal corrosion. The users plumbing can be an important factor. In recent years, many lead pipes in Germany have been replaced by pipes made of an alternative material. The aim of this study is to assess the present state of drinking water contamination and the resulting exposure of infants to lead. For this purpose mothers of new-born babies were offered a free examination of their drinking water. After a written declaration of consent had been obtained and after the infant in question had reached an age of 3 months, a stagnation sample of cold tap-water after overnight stagnation together with a random daytime sample was obtained from the family. The collected samples were analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry for their lead concentration. In total, 1485 samples from households were collected. Of the 1434 stagnation samples, 3.1% had lead concentrations greater than 0.01 mg/l (recommended limit of the WHO) and 0.6% had concentrations above the limit of the German drinking water regulation (0.04 mg/l). The values for the 1474 random daytime samples were 2.1% above 0.01 mg/l and 0.2% greater than 0.04 mg/l, respectively. By region, the areas Bovenden, Friedland, Duderstadt, Northeim and Rosdorf were particularly affected. The highest measured concentrations of lead in the stagnation samples were 0.11 mg/l and 0.15 mg/l in the random daytime samples, respectively.

Quantification of house dust mite allergens in ambient air.

The house dust mites Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus and Dermatophagoides farinae are important sources of indoor allergens. In sensitized patients, house dust mites induce and exacerbate diseases like asthma bronchiale, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis. The most significant exposure of persons occurs overnight in bed and to a lesser extent, during the daytime while performing activities like vacuum cleaning or bed making. In general, house dust mite antigens are quantified in samples of reservoir dust of carpets or beds. Yet, assessing allergens in ambient air would better represent human exposures because inhalation is the main route of uptake, and a close correlation between levels of floor and air antigens has not yet been proved. Unfortunately, because of extremely low airborne particle concentrations, analyses are difficult to perform and depend on sophisticated sampling strategies, as well as on sensitive immunometric detection assays. Using monoclonal immunoassays, house dust mite antigens, quantified in undisturbed conditions in ambient air, are found at pg/m3 levels. The disturbance of reservoir dust by vacuum cleaning or bed making increases the airborne allergen levels up to ng/m3 concentrations. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge regarding the analysis of airborne house dust mites in both undisturbed and disturbed ambient air. The advantages and disadvantages of different sampling strategies are outlined.

Presence of Legionellaceae in warm water supplies and typing of strains by polymerase chain reaction.

Outbreaks of Legionnaire's disease present a public health challenge especially because fatal outcomes still remain frequent. The aim of this study was to describe the abundance and epidemiology of Legionellaceae in the human-made environment. Water was sampled from hot-water taps in private and public buildings across the area of Göttingen, Germany, including distant suburbs. Following isolation, we used polymerase chain reaction in order to generate strain specific banding profiles of legionella isolates. In total, 70 buildings were examined. Of these 18 (26%) had the bacterium in at least one water sample. Legionella pneumophila serogroups 1, 4, 5 and 6 could be identified in the water samples. Most of the buildings were colonized solely by one distinct strain, as proven by PCR. In three cases equal patterns were found in separate buildings. There were two buildings in this study where isolates with different serogroups were found at the same time.

Micronucleus formation in human lymphocytes and in the metabolically competent human hepatoma cell line Hep-G2: results with 15 naturally occurring substances.

To examine the concordance of two metabolizing systems for use in genotoxocity testing with the micronucleus test, 15 naturally occurring substances (arecoline, the plant extract aristolochic acid, beta-asarone, benzyl acetate, coumarin, emodine, isatidine dihydrate, monocrotaline, psoralen, reserpine, retrorsine, safrole, sanguinarine chloride, tannin and thiourea) were tested for their genotoxicity in the cytokinesis-block micronucleus test in vitro with human lymphocytes and in the presence and the absence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver S9-mix and the metabolically competent human hepatoma cell line Hep-G2. Arecoline, the plant extract aristolochic acid, psoralen and tannin caused a significant increase in the number of micronuclei in human lymphocytes in the presence and the absence of an exogenous metabolising system from rat liver S9-mix and the metabolically competent human hepatoma cell line Hep-G2. A significant increase in the number of micronuclei with beta-asarone, coumarin, monocrotaline and retrorsine could be detected in the presence of S9-mix and the cell line Hep-G2. Benzyl acetate, emodine, isatidine dihydrate, reserpine, safrole, sanguinarine chloride and thiourea did not reveal any micronucleus inducing activity in either human lymphocytes or in Hep-G2. In addition to the other Hep-G2 results in the literature, this human hepatoma cell line could have a useful potential in the in vitro micronucleus test.

Determination of the extent of excessive copper concentrations in the tap-water of households with copper pipes and an assessment of possible health hazards for infants.

During the past 20 years there has been much discussion about copper in connection with a form of Early Childhood Liver Cirrhosis (ECLC) known as Non Indian Childhood Cirrhosis (NICC). NICC is similar to Indian Childhood Cirrhosis (ICC) which occurs in India, and has already been known for many years. ICC is attributed to the excessive intake of copper derived from milk or water stored in copper and brass vessels. To determine precisely a possible connection between the amount of copper in tap-water and the risk of early childhood liver disease, an attempt was first made, through an epidemiological survey, to determine the extent of excessive concentrations of copper in the tap-water of households with copper pipes. To achieve this, water samples from 956 households were tested for copper, and the state of health of the infants in these households was documented. Infants who had been fed using water with a copper concentration of 0.8 mg/l or more received a paediatric examination with a blood check so as to rule out any possibility of liver damage. A copper level greater than 0.8 mg/l was found in only 2% of the households examined. Eight infants were examined by a paediatrician and received blood checks. (These infants had either been breast-fed up until their 12th week or had received more than 200 ml of tap water per day during their first 12 months). None of the infants examined showed any signs of liver malfunction. From the results of the study, no indication of a hazard due to copper pipes connected to public water supplies could be found.

SOS induction of selected naturally occurring substances in Escherichia coli (SOS chromotest).

Naturally occurring substances were tested for genotoxicity using a modified laboratory protocol of the Escherichia coli PQ37 genotoxicity assay (SOS chromotest) in the presence and in the absence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver S9-mix. Aristolochic acid I, II, the plant extract aristolochic acid and psoralene were genotoxic; cycasine, emodine, monocrotaline and retrorsine were classified as marginal genotoxic in the SOS chromotest in the absence of S9-mix. In the presence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver S9-mix aristolochic acid I, the plant extract, beta-asarone, cycasin, monocrotaline, psoralen and retrorsine showed genotoxic effects; aristolochic acid II marginal genotoxic effects. Arecoline, benzyl acetate, coumarin, isatidine dihydrate, reserpine, safrole, sanguinarine chloride, senecionine, senkirkine, tannin and thiourea revealed no genotoxicity in the SOS chromotest either in the presence or in the absence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver S9-mix. For 17 of 20 compounds, the results obtained in the SOS chromotest could be compared to those obtained in the Ames test. It was found that 12 (70.6%) of these compounds give similar responses in both tests (6 positive and 6 negative responses). The present investigation and those reported earlier, the SOS chromotest, using E. coli PQ37, was able to detect correctly most of the Salmonella mutagens and non-mutagens.

Studies on the influence of the copper content in the drinking water on the newborn copper burden and transaminases activity.

INTRODUCTION: Clinical parameters for the early diagnosis of a potential development of childhood cirrhosis are not available. A cross-section study was performed to investigate whether the serum copper content and the activities of the newborn's glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) may be associated with the copper contents of the drinking water and/or the maternal serum and thus could serve as early indicator of an elevated health hazard. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The serum concentration of copper was analyzed in samples of 141 mother-newborn pairs. Additionally, in umbilical cord serum the activities of the transaminases GOT and GPT were determined. Low molecular bound or free copper was quantified in 30 randomly chosen serum filtrates. According to questionnaire data, in 62 of the 141 households the drinking water installations consisted of copper. In these cases, the element was analyzed in drinking water. RESULTS: The copper content of the drinking water was found ranging between 0.02 and 2.5 mg Cu/l (median 0.22 mg Cu/l), the maternal serum copper content ranged from 770-3720 micrograms Cu/l (median 2275 micrograms Cu/l), the neonatal serum from 220 to 1930 micrograms Cu/l (median 500 micrograms Cu/l), respectively. GOT (6-33 U/l); median 14 U/l) and GPT (3-21 U/l; median 6 U/l) activities could be judged as reference range data. In the statistical analysis, an association between the copper content of the drinking water and the maternal or neonatal serum copper content could not be found. Pearson regression analysis revealed slight, yet significant correlations of the neonatal GOT and GPT activities with the maternal serum copper content (GPT: r2 = 0.06; p < 0.05; GOT: r2 = 0.05; p < 0.05; each n = 139). In addition, the copper content of the mother's serum filtrates was correlated with the newborns' serum filtrates (Spearman: r = 0.61; p < 0.001; n = 30). CONCLUSIONS: The prenatal copper exposure of the infant could be mainly determined by low molecular or free serum maternal copper, which seems to be able to penetrate the placental barrier easily. The association between maternal serum copper content and neonatal transaminases activity can be judged as clinically not relevant and might be a physiologic response.

[Drinking water supply with reference to geogenic arsenic contamination]. / Trinkwassergewinnung unter Berücksichtigung geogener Arsenbelastungen.

Geogenic Arsenic in Drinking Water. Drinking water production of surface spring water in southern Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen, Germany) was reduced because of microbiological contaminations and unreliably variable water reserves. Surface spring water in general has a low arsenic content. As a consequence ground water has been increasingly used for drinking water. Thus, high geogenic concentrations of arsenic in the central "Buntsandstein" in southern Lower Saxony caused high arsenic contents in the groundwater. Under the regulation of the German Drinking Water Ordinance (1986) the limit for total arsenic (40 micrograms/l) was exceeded in 2% of 150 fountains, wells and sources in southern Lower Saxony. Because of the well-known cancerogenic potential of arsenic the limit for total arsenic in drinking water was reduced from 40 micrograms/l to 10 micrograms/l suspending the new standard value until January 1996. This regulation based on new calculations revealing a skin cancer risk of roughly 6:10,000 and a mortality risk of roughly 1:10(6) in respect of lifetime in case of arsenic concentrations of 10 micrograms As/l drinking water. After that limit change 40% of 150 wells and sources in southern Lower Saxony exceeded the arsenic limit of 10 micrograms/l drinking water. As a matter of fact, it became necessary for a large number of water supply works to eliminate arsenic from the drinking water by technical means or to dilute drinking water with high concentrations of arsenic.

[Biological monitoring of persons in areas with increased soil mercury, arsenic and antimony content]. / Biomonitoring-Untersuchung bei Personen in Wohngebieten mit erhöhten Bodenwerten an Quecksilber, Arsen und Antimon.

Part of the northern Palatinate region in Germany is characterised by elevated levels of mercury, arsenic and antimony in the soil due to the presence of ore sources and former mercury mining activities. In a biomonitoring study, roughly 200 residents of this region were investigated for a putative increased absorption of these elements. Urine and scalp hair samples were examined. The results did not show a correlation between the mercury and antimony contents in the soil of the housing area and those in urine and hair. On the other hand, slightly but presumably non-hazardous, elevated arsenic contents in urine and scalp hair could be correlated to an increased arsenic content in the soil. According to multiple regression analysis this increase also correlated with the consumption of poultry, eggs and vegetables kept and cultivated respectively in grounds contaminated with arsenic. In urine, sex differences could be seen for antimony: male probands showing significantly higher mean urinary antimony levels than female probands. Urinary mercury contents were correlated with the amalgam area. Similarly, scalp hair of men contained significantly higher levels of arsenic and antimony in comparison to women. Mercury contents in scalp hair were correlated with the consumption of seafood. Children aged 2 to 6 years had significantly lower levels of mercury, arsenic and antimony in urine than the adult subjects. Thus, an elevated health hazard to these children by e.g. intake of contaminated soil is not expected.

Effects of beta-carotene, retinal, riboflavin, alpha-tocopherol and vitamins C and K1 on sister-chromatid exchanges induced by 3-amino-1-methyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-2) and cyclophosphamide in human lymphocyte cultures.

The vitamins and related compounds cited in the title were investigated for their abilities to modulate sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs) induced by Trp-P-2 or cyclophosphamide (CP) in human peripheral lymphocyte cultures in the presence of an exogenous metabolizing system from rat liver. When inducer and test substances were given simultaneously, beta-carotene, retinal and alpha-tocopherol caused a dose-dependent decrease of SCE frequencies induced by Trp-P-2 and CP. Vitamin K1, however, brought about an identical effect with Trp-P-2 only, while with CP an initial decrease of SCEs was followed by a statistically significant re-increase at higher concentrations. Vitamin C was ineffective against Trp-P-2, but caused an overall increase of SCEs induced by CP. When blood cultures were preincubated with vitamins before the addition of CP or Trp-P-2, basically identical effects were observed with beta-carotene, retinal, alpha-tocopherol, vitamin K1 and vitamin C. Riboflavin decreased SCEs induced by Trp-P-2 in all treatment schedules, although statistically confirmed minima were observed in the dose-response curves, except in post-treatment experiments. On the other hand, riboflavin only reduced SCEs induced by CP when it was preincubated with lymphocytes. When vitamins were applied in a post-treatment schedule after removal of Trp-P-2 or CP, again, basically identical results against both genotoxins were observed with beta-carotene, retinal and alpha-tocopherol with vitamin K1, however, only with respect to Trp-P-2, and with vitamin C only with respect to CP. In the post-treatment schedule, vitamin K1 caused a decrease of SCE frequencies induced by CP, and vitamin C a decrease of SCEs induced by Trp-P-2.

Human effect monitoring in cases of occupational exposure to antineoplastic drugs: a method comparison.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether DNA damage increased in subjects possibly exposed to high amounts of antineoplastic agents. METHODS: The level of genetic damage was determined in peripheral mononuclear blood cells with the sister chromatid exchange test, the alkaline elution technique, and the cytokinesis block micronucleus test. RESULTS: The supposed increased exposure of the study subjects was caused by a malfunction of a safety hood resulting in leakage of air during preparation of an infusion of an antineoplastic drug. Two months after a new safety hood was installed, the frequencies of micronuclei and sister chromatid exchanges of exposed nurses (n = 10) were still significantly increased when compared with a matched control group (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, one sided Wilcoxon test, respectively). In a second examination seven months later, the frequency of micronuclei had significantly decreased to control values (p < 0.05, one sided Wilcoxon test, n = 6). Moreover, the study subjects who smoked (n = 8) had significantly increased frequencies of micronuclei and sister chromatid exchanges (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, one sided U test, respectively). No differences in the rate of DNA damage could be detected with the alkaline elution technique. CONCLUSIONS: Control measures on the level of biological effect should be performed regularly to ensure maximum safety precautions for workers potentially exposed to genotoxic agents.

Genotoxicity of polycyclic musk fragrances in the sister-chromatid exchange test.

The synthetic polycyclic musk fragrance compounds Galaxolide (1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-cyclo-penta-(g)-2-++ +benzopyrane, Tonalide (7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamerthyltetraline), Celestolide (4-acetyl-1,1-dimethyl-6-tert, butylindane), Phantolide (6-acetyl-1,1,2,3,3,5-hexamethylindane), Cashmeran (6,7-dihydro-1,1,2,3,3-pentamethyl-4-(5H) indanone) and Traseolide (5-acetyl-1,1,2,6-tetramethyl-3-isopropylindane) are widely used as fragrance ingredients in perfumes, lotions and detergents; as food additives in cigarettes and fish baits. Several studies identified polycyclic musk fragrances in aquatic environment samples, human milk and human adipose tissue as highly lipophil with human lymphocytes.

Human biomonitoring of antimony.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to test the suitability of 24-h urine, blood, and scalp-hair samples as surrogates for the determination of internal exposure to antimony in case of a strongly elevated soil contamination with antimony. METHODS: The bio-monitoring was performed using graphite-furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Blood and scalp-hair samples were decomposed by microwave digestion. RESULTS: No elevated content of antimony could be detected in 24-h urine, blood, or scalp-hair samples from the study participants geogenically exposed to antimony. The results did not show a correlation between the antimony contents in the soil of the housing area and those in urine, blood, or hair. Surprisingly, the reference group (n = 47) showed a significantly higher median antimony excretion rate than did the exposed group (n = 89; 1.23 versus 0.60 micrograms Sb/24 h). Additionally, the scalp-hair contents of the reference group were also significantly higher than those of the exposed persons (0.045 versus 0.026 mg Sb/kg). Blood contents of the two study groups were 0.57 and 0.48 microgram Sb/l, respectively. The detection limit for urine and blood was 0.5 microgram Sb/l and that for scalp hair was 0.005 mg Sb/kg. Of all samples of urine, blood, and scalp hair analyzed, 31.2%, 49.3%, and 10.3%, respectively, were below the limit of analytical detection. CONCLUSIONS: The antimony contents recorded for both study groups in urine, blood, and scalp hair can be judged as being within the normal range. The rate of transfer of antimony from the soil to humans in the exposure case described seemed to be very low. With respect to analytical practicability and validity, urine was the surrogate which deemed most useful for determination of internal exposure to antimony.