Microplastic contamination in Indian rural and urban lacustrine ecosystems.

This study investigates the microplastics (MPs) pollution of the lacustrine ecosystems of Tamil Nadu, South India. It examines the seasonal distribution, characteristics and morphology of MPs and assesses the risk posed by MPs pollution. MPs abundance in the 39 rural and urban lakes studied varies from 16 ± 2.69 to 118.17 ± 22.17 items/L (water) and 19.50 ± 4.75 to 156.23 ± 36.41 items/kg (sediment). The water and sediment of urban lakes show average MPs abundances of 88.06 items/L and 115.24 items/kg respectively, while the rural lakes exhibit average MPs abundances of 42.98 items/L and 53.29 items/kg. The results demonstrate that study areas with more residential and urban centers with higher population density and larger discharge of sewage have greater MP abundance. Urban zones have greater MP diversity integrated index (MPDII = 0.73) than rural zones (MPDII = 0.59). Fibres are the dominant group and polyethylene and polypropylene are the most commonly found polymers, possibly gaining entry through land-based plastic litter and urban activities in this region. The weathering index values, 50 % of MPs exhibit high degree of oxidation (WI >0.31) with an age of >10 years. SEM-EDAX results reveal that the weathered MPs from urban lakes have a wider variety of metal elements (Al, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Sr, Hg, Pb and Cd) than those from rural lakes (Na, Cl, Si, Mg, Al, Cu). Though PLI shows low risk (<10) in terms of abundance, PHI reflects pollution status III (10-100) and IV (100-1000) in rural areas and IV and V (>1000) in urban areas based on the toxicity score of the polymer. Ecological risk assessment shows minor risks (<150) at present. The assessment indicates the risk posed by the MPs to the lakes studied and emphasizes the necessity for best MP management practices in future.

Seasonal and spatial variations in the distribution pattern, sources and impacts of microplastics along different coastal zones of Tamil Nadu, India.

We investigated spatiotemporal variations of microplastics (MPs) in Coromandel Coast, Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar, and West Coast of Tamil Nadu, India. MPs abundance varies from 37 ± 1.52 to 189 ± 9.02 items/kg in sediment and 23 ± 15.25 to 155.25 ± 4.16 items/L in water. Highest abundance in monsoon by riverine inflow transports plastic waste to the ocean. MPs sizes 0.5-1 mm are dominant in summer with 16 polymers, while 3-4 mm dominates the monsoon with 23 polymers. Carbonyl Index shows high MP oxidation (>0.31), unrelated to spatiotemporal changes. SEM-EDAX shows weathered MPs carrying hazardous metals. High MP diversity (MPDII = 0.77) of Coromandel Coast points to many sources of pollution and the need for immediate control measures. Pollution load values indicate low degree of MP pollution (<10), polymer hazard index shows level III (10-100) and IV (100-1000), and ecological risk assessment shows minor risks (<150) at present.

Microplastic pollution and its implicated risks in the estuarine environment of Tamil Nadu, India.

Estuaries are transition zones between freshwater and seawater. There are only few studies on microplastic (MPs) pollution in estuaries. In this study, investigating the spatiotemporal variations of MPs in water, sediment and biota samples of 19 estuaries in Tamil Nadu, India, we assessed the chemical and human exposure risks of MPs. MPs extracted by digestion and density separation and characterized them using microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis of X-rays. MP abundancesin summer and monsoon range from 31.7 ± 3.8 to 154.7 ± 4.2 items/L in water and 51.7 ± 3.6 to 171.4 ± 9.1 items/kg in sediment. Highest MPs abundance is found in water and sediment of the urbanized Adayar estuary. MP levels are higher in monsoon than in summer (P < 0.05) due to the discharge of wastewater via storm water outlets. More small-size MPs are found in summer (<0.5-1 mm) while monsoon has a greater diversity of MP polymers (MPDII: 0.81). MP abundance in fish varies from 0.01 ± 0.003 to 0.15 ± 0.03 items/g, and in shellfish from 0.75 ± 0.12 to 9.7 ± 0.28 items/g. In fish, more MPs are found in intestine than in gill or muscle. Shell fishes contain more MPs than fishes. In all the matrices, fibers of different sizes, and polymers of polyethylene and polypropylene are commonly found. An average local person is likely to ingest 781 items of MPs via fish and 2809 items via shellfish annually. Polymer hazard index shows hazard levels of IV to V indicating the serious MP pollution trend, which poses a risk to the biota. In conclusion, MPs observed in this study show that estuaries are a major pathway for land-derived plastics to reach the ocean. The results will help implement remedial/clean-up measures for the estuary for better ecosystem conservation.

Microplastic in the coral reef environments of the Gulf of Mannar, India - Characteristics, distributions, sources and ecological risks.

Microplastics (MPs; particles <5 mm) are widely distributed in various habitats from the land to the oceans. They have even reached the remotest of places, including the deep seas and Polar Regions. Although research on MPs pollution in the marine environment has received widespread attention in recent years, the distribution, sources and ecological risks of MPs in coastal areas remain unclear. This study assessed the abundance, characteristics, sources and ecological risk of MPs in surface waters and sediment of the mainland coast and four island groups comprising the coral reef environment of the Gulf of Mannar (GoM), southeast India. Mean MPs abundance across all 95 sampling sites ranged from 28.4 to 126.6 items L-1 in water and from 31.4 to 137.6 items kg-1 in sediment. MP fibers <2 mm dominated the water, while fragments >3 mm were predominant in sediments. Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) were the most common polymers in both matrices. The major proportion of MPs in the GoM derived from land-based sources, with distance to the mainland, coastal population density and improper handling of solid waste being the main factors influencing the abundance of MPs. Polymer Hazard Index (PHI), Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) were used to assess current levels of MPs. While the GoM has high PHI values (>1000) resulting from MPs with high hazard scores (e.g. polyamide, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride), the PLI values (1.46 and 1.51) indicate low MPs pollution levels in GoM waters and sediments, and the PERI values (31.7 and 24.4) indicate that this represents a minor ecological risk. The results from the current study enhance our understanding of the characteristics, sources, and associated environmental risks of MPs to marine ecosystems. This data may provide a baseline for future monitoring and the formulation of environmental policy.

Spatial and vertical distribution of microplastics and their ecological risk in an Indian freshwater lake ecosystem.

This study investigated the spatial and vertical distribution of microplastics (MPs) in the water and sediment samples collected from different locations in Kodaikanal Lake, a very popular tourist location. The lake provides water to placesdownstream. MPs are found in the surface water, surface sediment and core sediment, with their respective values of abundance being 24.42 ± 3.22 items/ l, 28.31 ± 5.29 items/ kg, and 25.91 ± 7.11 items/ kg. Spatially, abundance, colour, type and size of MPs vary in the samples of surface water and sediment. The highest levels of MPs are found in the lakes' outlet region. MPs detected are primarily fibres and fragments 3-5 mm in size with PE and PP being the predominant polymers. Seven sampling points were selected to investigate the vertical distribution of MPs. In the core sediment, the abundance and size of MPs decrease with depth. This probably indicates the presence of more MPs in the recent sediment. The core sediment is dominated by sand silt clay fractions, which facilitates potential downward infiltration of fine MPs. SEM images of MPs reveal that the degree of weathering increases with depth, and EDAX shows that smooth MP surface displays a lesser adhesion ability than the rough surface. Plastic wastes generated by tourism are the important source of MPs in the lake. The lake has high PHI values (>1000) due to MPs with high hazard score polymers (PS and PEU), whereas the PLI values (1.33) indicate low level of MP pollution representing a minor ecological risk. The MP level in Kodaikanal Lake is influenced by the lake's hydrology and the sources of pollution. Although the impacts of MP pollution on the health and functioning of the environment is uncertain, observing, understanding and halting of further MP contamination in the Kodaikanal Lakes is important.

Microplastic contamination in Indian edible mussels (Perna perna and Perna viridis) and their environs.

This study investigated the microplastic (MPs) contamination of the mussels, P. viridis and P. perna of different sizes, and their environment viz. water and sediment. MPs were recovered from the soft tissues of both species. The mean abundance of MPs ranges from 0.87 ± 0.55 to 10.02 ± 4.15 items/individual; 0.1 ± 0.03 to 2.05 ± 0.33 items/g; 31.57 ± 7.63 to 59.25 ± 14.32 items/l in water, and 79.54 ± 18.66 to 108 ± 40.36 items/kg in sediment. Smaller mussels (3-6 cm) are capable of ingesting higher quantities of MPs per gram of tissue weight, and the rate of MP uptake decreases when the mussels grow in size. These might be due to the faster filtration rate in smaller mussels. MPs of fiber type and blue color in the size range of 500 µm to 1 mm are predominant in mussels. Eleven different polymeric groups were identified, of which PE is the most common, followed by PP. The distribution patterns of MP abundance, shape, size, color, and polymer in mussels more closely resemble those in water. There is no significant difference in MP quantities between P. perna and P. viridis (p > 0.05). FTIR-ATR spectroscopy and SEM analysis show that most of the MPs have been strongly weathered. EDAX analysis detects heavy metals like As, Ni, Fe, Zn, and Cd associated with MPs. This study shows that the MPs contents of both the mussel species are transferred from seawater to their edible meat. This study again proved that mussels can act as bio indicator of MPs pollution.

Low oxygen levels caused by Noctiluca scintillans bloom kills corals in Gulf of Mannar, India.

Coral reefs around the world are undergoing severe decline in the past few decades. Mass coral mortalities have predominantly been reported to be caused by coral bleaching or disease outbreaks. Temporary hypoxic conditions caused by algal blooms can trigger mass coral mortalities though are reported rarely. In this study in Gulf of Mannar (GoM), southeast India, we report a significant coral mortality caused by a bloom of the ciguatoxic dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans during September-October 2019. Dissolved oxygen levels declined below 2 mg l-1 during the bloom causing temporary hypoxia and mortality (up to 71.23%) in the fast growing coral genera Acropora, Montipora and Pocillopora. Due to global climate change, more frequent and larger algal blooms are likely in the future. Hence, it is likely that shallow water coral reefs will be affected more frequently by episodic hypoxic conditions driven by algal blooms. More studies are, however, required to understand the mechanism of coral mortality due to algal blooms, impacts on community composition and the potential for subsequent recovery.

Occurrence and characteristics of microplastics in the coral reef, sea grass and near shore habitats of Rameswaram Island, India.

This study compares the occurrence and characteristics of microplastics (MPs) and heavy metal contaminants in the water and sediment of three habitats (corals, seagrass-beds and near-shores) of Rameswaram Island, India. The overall mean concentration of MPs varies from 24 ± 9 to 96 ± 57 items/L in water, and from 55 ± 21 to 259 ± 88 items/kg in sediment. The value of abundance is the greatest in the coral reef site CR-1 (96 ± 51 items/L; 259 ± 88 items/kg) followed by the seagrass site SG-2 (94 ± 55 items/L; 203 ± 75 items/kg) and the near-shore site St-15 (95 ± 63 items/L; 193 ± 75 items/kg). PE fiber (<1000 µm) is predominant in water, whereas PP fiber and fragment (between 2000 and 5000 µm) dominate the sediment. The SEM images of MPs reveal features which are characteristic of degradation like surface roughness, cracks, protrusions, and chalking, along with surface precipitates of both chemical and biological origin. EDAX images show the presence of Cr, Fe, Hg, Pb, Cu, As and Cd associated with MP surfaces.

Microplastic and heavy metal distributions in an Indian coral reef ecosystem.

The current study focuses on the occurrence and characteristics of microplastics (MPs) and spatial distribution and pollution status of heavy metals in the water and sediments of the coral reef ecosystems associated with the Tuticorin and Vembar groups of islands in the Gulf of Mannar, southeast India. Mean abundance of MPs varies from 60 ± 54 to 126.6 ± 97 items/L in water and from 50 ± 29 to 103.8 ± 87 items/kg in sediment. Water and sediment samples from the Tuticorin islands contain higher MP concentrations than the Vembar islands. The highest MP were observed in the mainland samples, while MP distributions in the shoreward direction i.e. towards the islands closely reflect those of the mainland (p < 0.05). Polyethylene is the most common polymer, with fibers (1-3 mm) being the most abundant form in water and fragments (3-5 mm) being the most abundant in sediment. Pollution indices such as enrichment and contamination factors indicate moderate contamination of sediments by Zn, Hg, Cd, Pb and Ni. Heavy metal associated with MPs are greater than those in sediments, and this indicates that MP may be a source of metal pollution or that metals from the sediment preferentially partition to MPs. SEM analysis highlights the presence of cracks, protrusions and depositions on the surface of many MPs, indicating partial degradation. EDAX frequently showed the presence of Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni and Fe associated with MP surfaces. This study offers an insight into the level of MPs and associated elements that filter feeding corals in the region are exposed to current.

Macro-, meso- and microplastic debris in the beaches of Tuticorin district, Southeast coast of India.

This study investigates the mean concentration and characteristics of macroplastics (>2.5 cm), mesoplastics (5 mm - 2.5 cm) and microplastics (<5 mm) on eight sandy beaches along the shoreline of Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu. Prevalence of plastic litters varies among the study sites depending on the intensity of fishing and other human activities. Mean concentrations of macroplastics (1.38 ± 78 to 6.16 ± 94 items/m2), mesoplastics (2 ± 0.8 to 17 ± 0.11 items/m2) and microplastics (25 ± 1.58 to 83 ± 49 items/m2) were estimated in respect of the polymers composing them namely PE, PP, PET, NY, PS and PVC, of which PE is the most predominant polymer. At Sites 1, 2, 3, 5 and 8 there is correlation between the intensity of fishing activity and the concentrations of macro- (p = 0.02) and microplastics (p = 0.03). Sites 4, 6 and 7 there is correlation established between the degree of recreational activity and the concentrations of meso- (p = 0.02) and microplastics (p = 0.01).

Profiling microplastics in the Indian edible oyster, Magallana bilineata collected from the Tuticorin coast, Gulf of Mannar, Southeastern India.

The objective of this study is to quantify the extent of microplastic (MP) contamination in the Indian edible oyster (Magallana bilineata) and to understand how this relates to the MP contamination in its surrounding marine environment. Samples of water, sediment and oysters of different sizes were collected from three sites along Tuticorin coast in Gulf of Mannar in Southeast India. The mean abundance of MP in oysters was found to be 6.9 ±â€¯3.84 items/individual and the mean concentration to be 0.81 ±â€¯0.45 items/g of tissue. Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) fibers were the dominant MP types in oysters (92% and 4%, respectively) and in seawater (75% and 25%, respectively), with PE fibers, ranging from 0.25 to 0.5 mm, being the most common. Both PE and PP are low-density polymers which are slow to sediment to the seafloor. This increases the potential of their availability in the environment and ingestion by the oysters. The largest oysters (14-16 cm) contained the highest abundance and concentrations of MP, suggesting a greater proportion of MP in the water column is ingested with increasing size. The calculated microplastic index (0.02 to 0.99) also indicates that MP bioavailability increases with increasing size of oysters. The distribution patterns of MP abundance, shape and size in oysters more closely resemble those in water than in sediment. The surface morphology of the MPs reveals the characteristic pits and cracks which result from partial degradation through the weathering processes. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis shows the presence of Ni and Fe in association with MP, and this probably indicates the fly-ash pollution and the petroleum-related activities in the surrounding area. Being sessile animals the oysters are good candidates for use as sentinel organisms for monitoring MP in specific marine environments.

Seagrass restoration in Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu, Southeast India: a viable management tool.

Seagrass beds are important marine ecosystems that provide significant ecological services. The global decline of seagrass beds is becoming severe due to the increasing pressure of human-induced factors and changing climatic conditions. Restoration of seagrasses is an evolving science that started in 1939. In this study, we report a remarkably successful restoration activity carried out in the Gulf of Mannar (GoM), Southeast India. This is the first wide-scale effort in Indian waters. After the initial experimentation, manual transplantation of seagrass sprigs was carried out near Vaan and Koswari islands in GoM. Transplantation was performed with PVC quadrats and jute twines in areas of 800 m2 in both the islands during February to May 2014. An increase from 16.4 ± 0.3 to 32.3 ± 0.6% in Vaan and from 15.1 ± 0.2 to 35.1 ± 0.9% in Koswari was observed in seagrass percentage cover during the period from June 2014 to May 2016. Area cover, shoot density, macrofaunal density and fish density increased at the restoration sites after the transplantation. Bottom trawling was found to be the most serious threat to the seagrass beds in these islands. This method of transplantation can be replicated in other areas of degraded seagrass in India to carry out wide-scale restoration of seagrasses.