RESUMEN
Mercury (Hg) is naturally released by volcanoes and geothermal systems, but the global flux from these natural sources is highly uncertain due to a lack of direct measurements and uncertainties with upscaling Hg/SO2 mass ratios to estimate Hg fluxes. The 2021 and 2022 eruptions of Fagradalsfjall volcano, southwest Iceland, provided an opportunity to measure Hg concentrations and fluxes from a hotspot/rift system using modern analytical techniques. We measured gaseous Hg and SO2 concentrations in the volcanic plume by near-source drone-based sampling and simultaneous downwind ground-based sampling. Mean Hg/SO2 was an order of magnitude higher at the downwind locations relative to near-source data. This was attributed to the elevated local background Hg at ground level (4.0 ng m-3) likely due to emissions from outgassing lava fields. The background-corrected plume Hg/SO2 mass ratio (5.6 × 10-8) therefore appeared conservative from the near-source to several hundred meters distant, which has important implications for the upscaling of volcanic Hg fluxes based on SO2 measurements. Using this ratio and the total SO2 flux from both eruptions, we estimate the total mass of gaseous Hg released from the 2021 and 2022 Fagradalsfjall eruptions was 46 ± 33 kg, equivalent to a flux of 0.23 ± 0.17 kg d-1. This is the lowest Hg flux estimate in the literature for active open-conduit volcanoes, which range from 0.6 to 12 kg d-1 for other hotspot/rift volcanoes, and 0.5-110 kg d-1 for arc volcanoes. Our results suggest that Icelandic volcanic systems are fed from an especially Hg-poor mantle. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the aerial near-source plume Hg measurement is feasible with a drone-based active sampling configuration that captures all gaseous and particulate Hg species, and recommend this as the preferred method for quantifying volcanic Hg emissions going forward.
RESUMEN
Volcanism is a potentially important natural source of mercury (Hg) to the environment. However, its impact on the global Hg cycle remains poorly understood despite advances over the last five decades. This represents a major uncertainty in our understanding of the relative contributions of natural and anthropogenic Hg sources to the global atmosphere. This uncertainty, in turn, impacts evaluation of the effectiveness of policies to mitigate the impact of anthropogenic Hg on the environment. Here we critically review recent progress in volcanic Hg emission research, including advances in sampling methods and understanding of the post-emission behavior of Hg in the atmosphere. Our statistical analysis of the limited available data shows that the plumes of non-arc volcanoes exhibit significantly higher Hg concentrations than arc volcanoes, yet the latter emit 3-fold higher Hg fluxes on average. Arc volcanism also dominates volcanic gas emissions globally, indicating that arc volcanoes should be a priority for future Hg emission research. We explore several methodological challenges that continue to hinder progress in quantifying global volcanic Hg emissions, and discuss the importance of longer time-frame data collection to capture temporal variations in emissions. Recommendations are proposed for working toward a more accurate assessment of the global volcanic Hg flux. A detailed summary of all published volcanic Hg emissions data worldwide is also presented as a reference tool for future work.
RESUMEN
Differentiating biotic and abiotic processes in nature remains a persistent challenge, specifically in evaluating microbial contributions to geochemical processes through time. Building on previous work reporting that biologically-influenced systems exhibit stronger long-range correlation than abiotic systems, this study evaluated the relationship between long-range correlation of redox potential and oxidation rates of circumneutral microaerophilic bacterial Fe(II) oxidation using a series of batch microcosms with bacteriogenic iron oxides (BIOS). Initial detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) scaling exponents of the abiotic microcosms were lower (ca. 1.20) than those of the biotic microcosms (ca. 1.80). As Fe(II) oxidation proceeded, correlation strength decayed as a logistic function of elapsed reaction time, exhibiting direct dependence on the free energy of reaction. Correlation strength for all microcosms decayed sharply from strong correlation to uncorrelated fluctuations. The decay rates are greater for abiotic microcosms than biotic microcosms. The ΔGm relaxation edges for biotic microcosms were lower, indicating less remaining free energy for Fe(II) oxidation than abiotic systems, with the implication that biologically-catalyzed reactions are likely more energetically efficient than abiotic reactions. These results strengthen the case for employing novel DFA techniques to distinguish in situ microbial metabolic activity from abiotic processes, as well as to potentially differentiate metabolisms among different chemoautotrophs.