The great tit HapMap project: A continental-scale analysis of genomic variation in a songbird.

A major aim of evolutionary biology is to understand why patterns of genomic diversity vary within taxa and space. Large-scale genomic studies of widespread species are useful for studying how environment and demography shape patterns of genomic divergence. Here, we describe one of the most geographically comprehensive surveys of genomic variation in a wild vertebrate to date; the great tit (Parus major) HapMap project. We screened ca 500,000 SNP markers across 647 individuals from 29 populations, spanning ~30 degrees of latitude and 40 degrees of longitude - almost the entire geographical range of the European subspecies. Genome-wide variation was consistent with a recent colonisation across Europe from a South-East European refugium, with bottlenecks and reduced genetic diversity in island populations. Differentiation across the genome was highly heterogeneous, with clear 'islands of differentiation', even among populations with very low levels of genome-wide differentiation. Low local recombination rates were a strong predictor of high local genomic differentiation (FST), especially in island and peripheral mainland populations, suggesting that the interplay between genetic drift and recombination causes highly heterogeneous differentiation landscapes. We also detected genomic outlier regions that were confined to one or more peripheral great tit populations, probably as a result of recent directional selection at the species' range edges. Haplotype-based measures of selection were related to recombination rate, albeit less strongly, and highlighted population-specific sweeps that likely resulted from positive selection. Our study highlights how comprehensive screens of genomic variation in wild organisms can provide unique insights into spatio-temporal evolutionary dynamics.

The son-killer microbe Arsenophonus nasoniae is a widespread associate of the parasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis in Europe.

Heritable microbes that exhibit reproductive parasitism are common in insects. One class of these are the male-killing bacteria, which are found in a broad range of insect hosts. Commonly, our knowledge of the incidence of these microbes is based on one or a few sampling sites, and the degree and causes of spatial variation are unclear. In this paper, we examine the incidence of the son-killer microbe Arsenophonus nasoniae across European populations of its wasp host, Nasonia vitripennis. In preliminary work, we noticed two female N. vitripennis producing highly female biased sex ratios in a field study from the Netherlands and Germany. When tested, the brood from Germany was revealed to be infected with A. nasoniae. We then completed a broad survey in 2012, in which fly pupal hosts of N. vitripennis were collected from vacated birds' nests from four European populations, N. vitripennis wasps allowed to emerge and then tested for A. nasoniae presence through PCR assay. We then developed a new screening methodology based on direct PCR assays of fly pupae and applied this to ethanol-preserved material collected from great tit (Parus major) nests in Portugal. These data show A. nasoniae is found widely in European N. vitripennis, being present in Germany, the UK, Finland, Switzerland and Portugal. Samples varied in the frequency with which they carry A. nasoniae, from being rare to being present in 50% of the pupae parasitised by N. vitripennis. Direct screening of ethanol-preserved fly pupae was an effective method for revealing both wasp and A. nasoniae infection, and will facilitate sample transport across national boundaries. Future research should examine the causes of variation in frequency, in particular testing the hypothesis that N. vitripennis superparasitism rates drive the variation in A. nasoniae frequency through providing opportunities for infectious transmission.

The effect of climate change on avian offspring production: A global meta-analysis.

Climate change affects timing of reproduction in many bird species, but few studies have investigated its influence on annual reproductive output. Here, we assess changes in the annual production of young by female breeders in 201 populations of 104 bird species (N = 745,962 clutches) covering all continents between 1970 and 2019. Overall, average offspring production has declined in recent decades, but considerable differences were found among species and populations. A total of 56.7% of populations showed a declining trend in offspring production (significant in 17.4%), whereas 43.3% exhibited an increase (significant in 10.4%). The results show that climatic changes affect offspring production through compounded effects on ecological and life history traits of species. Migratory and larger-bodied species experienced reduced offspring production with increasing temperatures during the chick-rearing period, whereas smaller-bodied, sedentary species tended to produce more offspring. Likewise, multi-brooded species showed increased breeding success with increasing temperatures, whereas rising temperatures were unrelated to reproductive success in single-brooded species. Our study suggests that rapid declines in size of bird populations reported by many studies from different parts of the world are driven only to a small degree by changes in the production of young.

Mobile samplers of particulate matter - Flying omnivorous insects in detection of industrial contamination.

Flying insects are potential mobile samplers of airborne particulate matter (PM). However, current knowledge on their susceptibility to PM is limited to pollinators. Insects' capacity for particle surface accumulation depends on the lifestyle, structure of the body integuments, and behavioral patterns. Here, we investigate how two species of flying omnivorous insects from the genus Vespula, possessing direct interactions with air, soil, plants, and herbivores, indicate industrial pollution by accumulating coarse (PM10) and fine (PM2.5) particles on their bodies. The internal accumulation of particles in wasps' gut tissues is assessed considering heavy metals exposure to reveal and discuss the potential magnitude of ecotoxicological risks. Female individuals of Vespula vulgaris and V. germanica were sampled with a hand-netting near to Harjavalta Cu-Ni smelter and in the control areas in southwestern Finland. They were analyzed with light microscopy (LM), electron microscopy (SEM, TEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) methods. Near to the smelter, wasps trapped significantly more particles, which were of bigger size and their surface optical density was higher. Vespula vulgaris accumulated larger particles than V. germanica, but that wasn't associated with morphological characteristics such as body size or hairiness. In both areas, accumulated surface PM carried clays and silicates. Only in polluted environments PM consistently contained metallic and nonmetallic particles (from high to moderate weight %) of Fe, Ni, Cu, and S - major pollutants emitted from the smelter. Wasps from industrially polluted areas carried significantly more granules in the columnar epithelial midgut cells. TEM-EDX analyses identified those structures were associated with metal ions such as Cr, Cu, Ni, and Fe. As epithelial gut cells accumulated metal particles, midgut confirmed as a barrier for metal exposure in wasps. External PM contamination in wasps is suggested as a qualitative, yet a natural and simple descriptor of local industrial emissions.

Temperature synchronizes temporal variation in laying dates across European hole-nesting passerines.

Identifying the environmental drivers of variation in fitness-related traits is a central objective in ecology and evolutionary biology. Temporal fluctuations of these environmental drivers are often synchronized at large spatial scales. Yet, whether synchronous environmental conditions can generate spatial synchrony in fitness-related trait values (i.e., correlated temporal trait fluctuations across populations) is poorly understood. Using data from long-term monitored populations of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus, n = 31), great tits (Parus major, n = 35), and pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca, n = 20) across Europe, we assessed the influence of two local climatic variables (mean temperature and mean precipitation in February-May) on spatial synchrony in three fitness-related traits: laying date, clutch size, and fledgling number. We found a high degree of spatial synchrony in laying date but a lower degree in clutch size and fledgling number for each species. Temperature strongly influenced spatial synchrony in laying date for resident blue tits and great tits but not for migratory pied flycatchers. This is a relevant finding in the context of environmental impacts on populations because spatial synchrony in fitness-related trait values among populations may influence fluctuations in vital rates or population abundances. If environmentally induced spatial synchrony in fitness-related traits increases the spatial synchrony in vital rates or population abundances, this will ultimately increase the risk of extinction for populations and species. Assessing how environmental conditions influence spatiotemporal variation in trait values improves our mechanistic understanding of environmental impacts on populations.

Maternally transferred thyroid hormones and life-history variation in birds.

In vertebrates, thyroid hormones (THs) play an important role in the regulation of growth, development, metabolism, photoperiodic responses and migration. Maternally transferred THs are important for normal early phase embryonic development when embryos are not able to produce endogenous THs. Previous studies have shown that variation in maternal THs within the physiological range can influence offspring phenotype. Given the essential functions of maternal THs in development and metabolism, THs may be a mediator of life-history variation across species. We tested the hypothesis that differences in life histories are associated with differences in maternal TH transfer across species. Using birds as a model, we specifically tested whether maternally transferred yolk THs covary with migratory status, developmental mode and traits related to pace-of-life (e.g. basal metabolic rate, maximum life span). We collected un-incubated eggs (n = 1-21 eggs per species, median = 7) from 34 wild and captive bird species across 17 families and six orders to measure yolk THs [both triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)], compiled life-history trait data from the literature and used Bayesian phylogenetic mixed models to test our hypotheses. Our models indicated that both concentrations and total amounts of the two main forms of THs (T3 and T4) were higher in the eggs of migratory species compared to resident species, and total amounts were higher in the eggs of precocial species, which have longer prenatal developmental periods, than in those of altricial species. However, maternal yolk THs did not show clear associations with pace-of-life-related traits, such as fecundity, basal metabolic rate or maximum life span. We quantified interspecific variation in maternal yolk THs in birds, and our findings suggest higher maternal TH transfer is associated with the precocial mode of development and migratory status. Whether maternal THs represent a part of the mechanism underlying the evolution of precocial development and migration or a consequence of such life histories is currently unclear. We therefore encourage further studies to explore the physiological mechanisms and evolutionary processes underlying these patterns.

Bird populations most exposed to climate change are less sensitive to climatic variation.

The phenology of many species shows strong sensitivity to climate change; however, with few large scale intra-specific studies it is unclear how such sensitivity varies over a species' range. We document large intra-specific variation in phenological sensitivity to temperature using laying date information from 67 populations of two co-familial European songbirds, the great tit (Parus major) and blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus), covering a large part of their breeding range. Populations inhabiting deciduous habitats showed stronger phenological sensitivity than those in evergreen and mixed habitats. However, populations with higher sensitivity tended to have experienced less rapid change in climate over the past decades, such that populations with high phenological sensitivity will not necessarily exhibit the strongest phenological advancement. Our results show that to effectively assess the impact of climate change on phenology across a species' range it will be necessary to account for intra-specific variation in phenological sensitivity, climate change exposure, and the ecological characteristics of a population.

The effect of experimental lead pollution on DNA methylation in a wild bird population.

Anthropogenic pollution is known to negatively influence an organism's physiology, behaviour, and fitness. Epigenetic regulation, such as DNA methylation, has been hypothesized as a potential mechanism to mediate such effects, yet studies in wild species are lacking. We first investigated the effects of early-life exposure to the heavy metal lead (Pb) on DNA methylation levels in a wild population of great tits (Parus major), by experimentally exposing nestlings to Pb at environmentally relevant levels. Secondly, we compared nestling DNA methylation from a population exposed to long-term heavy metal pollution (close to a copper smelter), where birds suffer from pollution-related decrease in food quality, and a control population. For both comparisons, the analysis of about one million CpGs covering most of the annotated genes revealed that pollution-related changes in DNA methylation were not genome wide, but enriched for genes underlying developmental processes. However, the results were not consistent when using binomial or beta binomial regression highlighting the difficulty of modelling variance in CpGs. Our study indicates that post-natal anthropogenic heavy metal exposure can affect methylation levels of development related genes in a wild bird population.

Blood Toxic Elements and Effects on Plasma Vitamins and Carotenoids in Two Wild Bird Species: Turdus merula and Columba livia.

Birds have historically suffered adverse effects by toxic elements, such as As, Pb, Hg, and Cd. However, reports on exposure to a wide range of elements, including rare earth elements and other minor elements of emerging concern, and the potential consequences for wildlife are still scarce. This study evaluates blood concentrations of 50 elements and their related effects on lutein and vitamin levels in the Eurasian blackbird (Turdus merula) and wild rock pigeon (Columba livia), inhabiting different scenarios of contaminant exposure. Blood concentrations of As, Cd, and Pb (and Mn in T. merula) were increased in both species captured in the mining area, compared to the control site. T. merula also showed increased As, Cd, and Pb concentrations in blood in the agricultural-urban area, as compared to the control area, together with the highest Hg levels, which could be related to agricultural practices and industrial activities. Decreases of 33 and 38% in the plasma retinol levels in T. merula inhabiting the mining and the agricultural-urban areas, respectively, as compared to the control site, were associated with increased Pb, As, and Cd exposure. This could be due to a metal-driven suppressive effect in retinol metabolism and/or its over-use for coping with metal-related oxidative stress.

Does Arsenic Contamination Affect DNA Methylation Patterns in a Wild Bird Population? An Experimental Approach.

Pollutants, such as toxic metals, negatively influence organismal health and performance, even leading to population collapses. Studies in model organisms have shown that epigenetic marks, such as DNA methylation, can be modulated by various environmental factors, including pollutants, influencing gene expression, and various organismal traits. Yet experimental data on the effects of pollution on DNA methylation from wild animal populations are largely lacking. We here experimentally investigated for the first time the effects of early-life exposure to environmentally relevant levels of a key pollutant, arsenic (As), on genome-wide DNA methylation in a wild bird population. We experimentally exposed nestlings of great tits (Parus major) to arsenic during their postnatal developmental period (3 to 14 days post-hatching) and compared their erythrocyte DNA methylation levels to those of respective controls. In contrast to predictions, we found no overall hypomethylation in the arsenic group. We found evidence for loci to be differentially methylated between the treatment groups, but for five CpG sites only. Three of the sites were located in gene bodies of zinc finger and BTB domain containing 47 (ZBTB47), HIVEP zinc finger 3 (HIVEP3), and insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein 1 (IGF2BP1). Further studies are needed to evaluate whether epigenetic dysregulation is a commonly observed phenomenon in polluted populations and what are the consequences for organism functioning and for population dynamics.

Identifying the paths of climate effects on population dynamics: dynamic and multilevel structural equation model around the annual cycle.

How environmental factors influence population dynamics in long-distance migrants is complicated by the spatiotemporal diversity of the environment the individuals experience during the annual cycle. The effects of weather on several different aspects of life history have been well studied, but a better understanding is needed on how weather affects population dynamics through the different associated traits. We utilise 77 years of data from pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca), to identify the most relevant climate signals associated with population growth rate. The strongest signals on population growth were observed from climate during periods when the birds were not present in the focal location. The population decline was associated with increasing precipitation in the African non-breeding quarters in the autumn (near the arrival of migrants) and with increasing winter temperature along the migration route (before migration). The number of fledglings was associated positively with increasing winter temperature in non-breeding area and negatively with increasing winter temperature in Europe. These possible carry-over effects did not arise via timing of breeding or clutch size but the exact mechanism remains to be revealed in future studies. High population density and low fledgling production were the intrinsic factors reducing the breeding population. We conclude that weather during all seasons has the potential to affect the reproductive success or population growth rate of this species. Our results show how weather can influence the population dynamics of a migratory species through multiple pathways, even at times of the annual cycle when the birds are in a different location than the climate signal.

Connecting the data landscape of long-term ecological studies: The SPI-Birds data hub.

The integration and synthesis of the data in different areas of science is drastically slowed and hindered by a lack of standards and networking programmes. Long-term studies of individually marked animals are not an exception. These studies are especially important as instrumental for understanding evolutionary and ecological processes in the wild. Furthermore, their number and global distribution provides a unique opportunity to assess the generality of patterns and to address broad-scale global issues (e.g. climate change). To solve data integration issues and enable a new scale of ecological and evolutionary research based on long-term studies of birds, we have created the SPI-Birds Network and Database (www.spibirds.org)-a large-scale initiative that connects data from, and researchers working on, studies of wild populations of individually recognizable (usually ringed) birds. Within year and a half since the establishment, SPI-Birds has recruited over 120 members, and currently hosts data on almost 1.5 million individual birds collected in 80 populations over 2,000 cumulative years, and counting. SPI-Birds acts as a data hub and a catalogue of studied populations. It prevents data loss, secures easy data finding, use and integration and thus facilitates collaboration and synthesis. We provide community-derived data and meta-data standards and improve data integrity guided by the principles of Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable (FAIR), and aligned with the existing metadata languages (e.g. ecological meta-data language). The encouraging community involvement stems from SPI-Bird's decentralized approach: research groups retain full control over data use and their way of data management, while SPI-Birds creates tailored pipelines to convert each unique data format into a standard format. We outline the lessons learned, so that other communities (e.g. those working on other taxa) can adapt our successful model. Creating community-specific hubs (such as ours, COMADRE for animal demography, etc.) will aid much-needed large-scale ecological data integration.

Bird Feces as Indicators of Metal Pollution: Pitfalls and Solutions.

Bird feces are commonly used as a proxy for measuring dietary metal exposure levels in wild populations. Our study aims to improve the reliability and repeatability of fecal metal measurements and gives some recommendations for sampling. First, we studied levels of variation in metallic element (arsenic, calcium, cadmium, cobalt, copper, nickel, lead) concentrations: temporal variation within an individual, among siblings in a brood and among-brood/spatial variation. Second, we explored the variation caused by dual composition (urate vs. feces) of bird droppings. Two sets of fresh fecal samples were collected from pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) nestlings living in a metal polluted area in summers 2017 (dataset 1) and 2018 (dataset 2). We found a great deal of temporal intra-individual variation in metal levels, suggesting that dietary exposure varied markedly in a short time scale (within a day). A sample from only one nestling per brood did not well describe the brood mean value, and we recommend that at least four siblings should be sampled. Brood level samples give relatively good temporal repeatability for most metals. For all the metals, the levels in the fecal portion were more than double to those in the urate portion. Since the mass proportion of urate in the bird droppings varied a great deal among samples, standardizing sampling, e.g., by collecting only the fecal part, would markedly reduce the variation due to composition. Alternatively, urate portion could be used for biomonitoring of internally circulated bioavailable metal.

Blood concentrations of 50 elements in Eagle owl (Bubo bubo) at different contamination scenarios and related effects on plasma vitamin levels.

Some metals and metalloids (e.g. Pb, Hg, Cd and As) are well-known for their bioaccumulation capacity and their toxic effects on birds, but concerns on other minor elements and rare earth elements (ME and REE) are growing due to their intensive use in modern technology and potential toxicity. Vitamins and carotenoids play essential roles in nestling growth and proper development, and are known to be affected by the metals classically considered as toxic. However, we are unaware of any attempts to evaluate the exposure to 50 elements and related effects in plasma vitamins and carotenoids in raptor species. The main goals of this study are: (i) to assess the exposure to 50 elements (i.e. classic toxic elements, trace elements, REE and ME) in nestling Eagle owls (Bubo bubo) inhabiting three differently polluted environments (mining, industrial and control areas) in southeastern Spain, and (ii) to evaluate how element exposure affects plasma vitamin and carotenoid levels, hematocrit and body measurements (mass and wing length) of the individuals. Our results show that local contamination in the mining area contributes to increased blood concentrations of Pb, As and Tl in nestlings, while diet differences between control and mining/industrial areas may account for the different levels of Mn, Zn, and Sr in blood, and lutein in plasma. Plasma tocopherol levels were increased in the mining-impacted environment, which may be a mechanism of protection to prevent toxic element-related oxidative stress. Plasma α-tocopherol was enhanced by 20% at blood Pb concentrations ≥8 ng/ml, and nestlings exhibited up to 56% increase in α-tocopherol levels when blood Pb concentrations reached 170 ng/ml. Tocopherol seems to be a sensitive biomarker under an exposure to certain toxic elements (e.g. Pb, As, Tl).

Weather effects on breeding parameters of two insectivorous passerines in a polluted area.

Direct and indirect effects of environmental pollution affect negatively to birds' breeding performance in both urban and industrial environments, but much less is known on how pollution and natural stress factors work together. In our long-term study (1991-2018), we explored whether industrial pollution and associated habitat changes increase the sensitivity of breeding parameters (hatching and fledging success, nestling growth) to temperature and precipitation in two insectivorous bird species, the great tit (Parus major) and the pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca). We found that both species are rather weather sensitive in terms of their fledging success, but especially in the F. hypoleuca, the negative effect was strengthened in a polluted environment. For both study species, all the breeding parameters, except growth of F. hypoleuca nestlings, were inferior in the polluted area and negatively affected by cold weather. Independent of pollution, the duration of rainy spells during the nestling period had an overall negative effect on fledging success of F. hypoleuca, and this effect became stronger at cold temperatures. The length of rainy spells was, however, positively associated with nestling wing length in both species, possibly because of better availability of some important food resources for wing growth in more humid conditions. The weather-pollution interactions in our study populations were not overwhelmingly strong, but those found in F. hypoleuca show that such interactions exist, they are species-specific and in our study system most likely associated to pollution-related resource (e.g. food) limitation. Higher sensitivity of F. hypoleuca to low temperatures is likely related to its less well-insulated nests and higher dependence on aerial prey, the availability of which is especially reduced during cold and rainy spells. Our study indicates that anthropogenic stress, such as pollution, has synergistic effects with natural stress factors affecting passerine birds' breeding performance.

Toxic elements in blood of red-necked nightjars (Caprimulgus ruficollis) inhabiting differently polluted environments.

Toxic metals have been widely reported in avian tissues due to their well-known accumulation capacity and adverse effects. However, rare earth elements (REE) and other minor elements (ME) are becoming a new threat due to their use in modern technology. Presently, exposure data are limited and no studies have been reported in wildlife. The order Caprimulgiformes is among the most understudied groups of birds lacking blood ecotoxicological data. One major constraint is the small blood sample volume that can be collected to ensure animal welfare, which limits analyses. In order to shed light on these collective issues, we sampled 48 red-necked nightjars (Caprimulgus ruficollis) inhabiting three different scenarios of contaminant exposure (agricultural-urban area, n = 15; mining area, n = 17; and control area, n = 16) in southeastern Spain, and report for the first time concentrations of 50 elements (i.e. trace elements, ATSDR's list toxic elements, REE and ME) using a recently developed technique able to analyze them by ICP-MS in very small volumes of blood (130 µL). Concentrations of As, Cd, Pb and Mn were significantly higher in individuals captured at the mining area compared to the other sites. Lead levels in the mine site were of particular concern since it was in the range of blood concentrations related to subclinical/clinical effects in other species, and in our study were associated with decreased hematocrit values (up to 44% hematocrit depression at blood concentrations >1000 ng/ml w.w.). Moreover, additive effects related to metal cocktail exposure in the mining area could be expected. Age and gender-related differences in blood concentrations were found for some elements. Even though most REE and ME concentrations were close to the LOQ, some of these emerging contaminants may trigger sublethal effects that, together with the ATSDR's list toxic elements, need to be carefully evaluated in a future study.

Female oxidative status in relation to calcium availability, metal pollution and offspring development in a wild passerine.

Both Ca deficiency and metal exposure may affect physiological and nutritional condition of breeding females altering their ability to deposit essential resources (e.g. Ca, antioxidants) into the eggs. This effect of the maternal investment into egg quality is not strictly limited to the embryonic period, but may persist after hatching, since nutrient levels in yolks can compromise nestling antioxidant status, growth and fledging success. The goal of this study was to investigate how metal pollution and Ca availability during the breeding season affect oxidative stress biomarkers and plasma biochemistry in adult female pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca). In addition, we aim to evaluate how maternal antioxidant status and body condition relate to breeding parameters and offspring oxidative balance. Females breeding in a metal-polluted area in SW Finland showed higher metal concentrations compared to the control area, although current levels were below the toxic level able to affect female physiology. In addition, Ca availability was not constraining female oxidative status and general health in the study area. Interestingly, our results suggested that antioxidant response to metals was better when Ca concentrations were high enough to cover the physiological Ca requirements in breeding females. There seems to be a subtle balance between the concentrations of Ca in the organism and the tolerance to metal-related effects that requires further research. This study supports that offspring oxidative balance and nestling development are affected by maternal body condition and antioxidant status.

Arsenic-related oxidative stress in experimentally-dosed wild great tit nestlings.

Arsenic (As) is broadly distributed due to natural and anthropogenic sources, and it may cause adverse effects in birds. However, research on other elements (Pb, Hg and Cd) has been prioritized, resulting in scarce data on As exposure and related effects in wild birds. One of the mechanisms responsible for As toxicity is oxidative stress. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate if environmentally relevant As levels affected oxidative stress biomarkers in great tits (Parus major). This is the first field experiment studying the effects of As on oxidative stress in wild passerines. Wild great tit nestlings were orally dosed with sodium arsenite (Control: water, Low dose: 0.2 µg g-1 d-1 and High dose: 1 µg g-1 d-1; from day 3 to day 13 post-hatching). We intended to reach As concentrations similar to those at which passerines are exposed to at actual polluted areas. We compared the responses to the experimental manipulations (High, Low and Control groups) with those in an As/metal-exposed population breeding close to a Cu-Ni smelter in Finland (Smelter group). A set of antioxidants (tGSH, GSH:GSSG ratio, CAT, SOD, GST and GPx), and oxidative damage biomarkers (lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation, 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine formation in DNA, and telomere length) were explored in blood. Arsenic administration had no significant effect on most of the biomarkers measured: only the CAT activity was lower in the High As group and the GPx activity was enhanced in the Smelter group compared to the Control. Our results suggest that the dose and duration of the As exposure was not enough to induce oxidative damage in red cells of great tit nestlings. In spite of this, nestlings dosed with 1 µg g-1 d-1 of sodium arsenite showed non-significantly higher oxidative stress biomarkers than controls, suggesting that we were close to an effect level for the redox-defense system. Oxidative effects at equivalent As levels combined with other stressors cannot be dismissed.

Host dispersal shapes the population structure of a tick-borne bacterial pathogen.

Birds are hosts for several zoonotic pathogens. Because of their high mobility, especially of longdistance migrants, birds can disperse these pathogens, affecting their distribution and phylogeography. We focused on Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, which includes the causative agents of Lyme borreliosis, as an example for tick-borne pathogens, to address the role of birds as propagation hosts of zoonotic agents at a large geographical scale. We collected ticks from passerine birds in 11 European countries. B. burgdorferi s.l. prevalence in Ixodes spp. was 37% and increased with latitude. The fieldfare Turdus pilaris and the blackbird T. merula carried ticks with the highest Borrelia prevalence (92 and 58%, respectively), whereas robin Erithacus rubecula ticks were the least infected (3.8%). Borrelia garinii was the most prevalent genospecies (61%), followed by B. valaisiana (24%), B. afzelii (9%), B. turdi (5%) and B. lusitaniae (0.5%). A novel Borrelia genospecies "Candidatus Borrelia aligera" was also detected. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis of B. garinii isolates together with the global collection of B. garinii genotypes obtained from the Borrelia MLST public database revealed that: (a) there was little overlap among genotypes from different continents, (b) there was no geographical structuring within Europe, and (c) there was no evident association pattern detectable among B. garinii genotypes from ticks feeding on birds, questing ticks or human isolates. These findings strengthen the hypothesis that the population structure and evolutionary biology of tick-borne pathogens are shaped by their host associations and the movement patterns of these hosts.

Adaptive responses of animals to climate change are most likely insufficient.

Biological responses to climate change have been widely documented across taxa and regions, but it remains unclear whether species are maintaining a good match between phenotype and environment, i.e. whether observed trait changes are adaptive. Here we reviewed 10,090 abstracts and extracted data from 71 studies reported in 58 relevant publications, to assess quantitatively whether phenotypic trait changes associated with climate change are adaptive in animals. A meta-analysis focussing on birds, the taxon best represented in our dataset, suggests that global warming has not systematically affected morphological traits, but has advanced phenological traits. We demonstrate that these advances are adaptive for some species, but imperfect as evidenced by the observed consistent selection for earlier timing. Application of a theoretical model indicates that the evolutionary load imposed by incomplete adaptive responses to ongoing climate change may already be threatening the persistence of species.