Modulation of intestinal cholesterol absorption by high glucose levels: impact on cholesterol transporters, regulatory enzymes, and transcription factors.

Growing evidence suggests that the small intestine may contribute to excessive postprandial lipemia, which is highly prevalent in insulin-resistant/Type 2 diabetic individuals and substantially increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. The aim of the present study was to determine the role of high glucose levels on intestinal cholesterol absorption, cholesterol transporter expression, enzymes controlling cholesterol homeostasis, and the status of transcription factors. To this end, we employed highly differentiated and polarized cells (20 days of culture), plated on permeable polycarbonate filters. In the presence of [(14)C]cholesterol, glucose at 25 mM stimulated cholesterol uptake compared with Caco-2/15 cells supplemented with 5 mM glucose (P < 0.04). Because combination of 5 mM glucose with 20 mM of the structurally related mannitol or sorbitol did not change cholesterol uptake, we conclude that extracellular glucose concentration is uniquely involved in the regulation of intestinal cholesterol transport. The high concentration of glucose enhanced the protein expression of the critical cholesterol transporter NPC1L1 and that of CD36 (P < 0.02) and concomitantly decreased SR-BI protein mass (P < 0.02). No significant changes were observed in the protein expression of ABCA1 and ABCG8, which act as efflux pumps favoring cholesterol export out of absorptive cells. At the same time, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase activity was decreased (P < 0.007), whereas ACAT activity remained unchanged. Finally, increases were noted in the transcription factors LXR-alpha, LXR-beta, PPAR-beta, and PPAR-gamma along with a drop in the protein expression of SREBP-2. Collectively, our data indicate that glucose at high concentrations may regulate intestinal cholesterol transport and metabolism in Caco-2/15 cells, thus suggesting a potential influence on the cholesterol absorption process in Type 2 diabetes.

Overproduction of intestinal lipoprotein containing apolipoprotein B-48 in Psammomys obesus: impact of dietary n-3 fatty acids.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Emerging evidence underscores the important role of the small intestine in the pathogenesis of dyslipidaemia in insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. We therefore tested the hypothesis that n-3 fatty acids improve the various events governing intra-enterocyte lipid transport in Psammomys obesus gerbils, a model of nutritionally induced metabolic syndrome. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Experiments were carried out on Psammomys obesus gerbils that were assigned to an isocaloric control diet and a diet rich in fish oil for 6 weeks. RESULTS: Increased dietary intake of fish oil lowered body weight and improved hyperglycaemia and hyperinsulinaemia. It simultaneously decreased de novo intestinal lipogenesis and lipid esterification of the major lipid classes, e.g. triglycerides, phospholipids and cholesteryl esters, particularly in insulin-resistant and diabetic animals. Accordingly, lessened activity of monoacylglycerol and diacylglycerol acyltransferase was recorded. As assessed in cultured jejunal explants incubated with either [(14)C]-oleic acid or [(35)S]-methionine, fish oil feeding resulted in diminished triglyceride-rich lipoprotein assembly and apolipoprotein (apo) B-48 biogenesis, respectively. The mechanisms did not involve apo B-48 transcription or alter the gene expression and activity of the critical microsomal triglyceride transfer protein. Rather, the suppressed production of apo B-48 by n-3 fatty acids was associated with intracellular proteasome-mediated posttranslational downregulation in insulin-resistant and diabetic animals. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our data highlight the beneficial impact of n-3 fatty acids on adverse effects of the metabolic syndrome and emphasise their influence on intestinal lipid transport, an effect which may limit postprandial lipaemia and the risk of atherosclerosis.

Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase sigma inhibits axonal regeneration and the rate of axon extension.

Transgenic mice lacking receptor protein tyrosine phophatase-sigma (RPTPsigma), a type IIa receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase, exhibit severe neural developmental deficits. Continued expression of RPTPsigma in the adult suggests that it plays a functional role in the mature nervous system. To determine if RPTPsigma might influence axonal regeneration, the time course of regeneration following facial nerve crush in wild-type and RPTPsigma (-/-) mice was compared. Mice lacking RPTPsigma exhibited an accelerated rate of functional recovery. Immunocytochemical examination of wild-type neurons in cell culture showed RPTPsigma protein in the growth cone. To determine if RPTPsigma affects the ability of a neuron to extend an axon, the rate of axon growth in neuronal cultures derived from wild-type and RPTPsigma (-/-) embryonic mice was compared. RPTPsigma did not affect the rate of axon initiation, but the rate of axon extension is enhanced in neurons obtained from RPTPsigma (-/-) mice. These findings indicate that RPTPsigma slows axon growth via a mechanism intrinsic to the neuron and identify a role for RPTPsigma regulating axonal regeneration by motoneurons.

Adipose tissue reduction in mice lacking the translational inhibitor 4E-BP1.

All nuclear-encoded mRNAs contain a 5' cap structure (m7GpppN, where N is any nucleotide), which is recognized by the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) subunit of the eIF4F complex. The eIF4E-binding proteins constitute a family of three polypeptides that reversibly repress cap-dependent translation by binding to eIF4E, thus preventing the formation of the eIF4F complex. We investigated the biological function of 4E-BP1 by disrupting its gene (Eif4ebp1) in the mouse. Eif4ebp1-/- mice manifest markedly smaller white fat pads than wild-type animals, and knockout males display an increase in metabolic rate. The males' white adipose tissue contains cells that exhibit the distinctive multilocular appearance of brown adipocytes, and expresses the uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), a specific marker of brown fat. Consistent with these observations, translation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma co-activator 1 (PGC1), a transcriptional co-activator implicated in mitochondrial biogenesis and adaptive thermogenesis, is increased in white adipose tissue of Eif4ebp1-/- mice. These findings demonstrate that 4E-BP1 is a novel regulator of adipogenesis and metabolism in mammals.

Modulation of insulin signaling by protein tyrosine phosphatases.

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) is a worldwide endocrine disorder afflicting persons of all races and age groups. At the molecular level NIDDM is often characterized by impaired insulin action on peripheral tissues. One important mechanism in regulating insulin signaling is mediated by protein tyrosine phosphatases, which may act on the insulin receptor itself and/or its substrates. Understanding the molecular events triggered by insulin has undoubtedly provided important clues in the treatment of NIDDM. In particular, the use of mouse models has helped us to focus on specific gene targets that are involved in the onset and progression of diabetes. Here we present an overview of the biochemical and genetic evidence supporting the role of five protein tyrosine phosphatases in insulin-mediated responses.

Neuroendocrine dysplasia in mice lacking protein tyrosine phosphatase sigma.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase sigma (PTP-sigma, encoded by the Ptprs gene) is a member of the LAR subfamily of receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatases that is highly expressed during mammalian embryonic development in the germinal cell layer lining the lateral ventricles of the developing brain, dorsal root ganglia, Rathke's pouch, olfactory epithelium, retina and developing lung and heart. On the basis of its expression and homology with the Drosophila melanogasterorthologues DPTP99 and DPTP100A (refs 5,6), which have roles in the targeting of axonal growth cones, we hypothesized that PTP-sigma may also have a modulating function in cell-cell interactions, as well as in axon guidance during mammalian embryogenesis. To investigate its function in vivo, we generated Ptprs-deficient mice. The resulting Ptprs-/-animals display retarded growth, increased neonatal mortality, hyposmia and hypofecundity. Anatomical and histological analyses showed a decrease in overall brain size with a severe depletion of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH)-immunoreactive cells in Ptprs-/- hypothalamus. Ptprs-/- mice have an enlarged intermediate pituitary lobe, but smaller anterior and posterior lobes. These results suggest that tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent signalling pathways regulated by PTP-sigma influence the proliferation and/or adhesiveness of various cell types in the developing hypothalamo-pituitary axis.

Increased insulin sensitivity and obesity resistance in mice lacking the protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B gene.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B (PTP-1B) has been implicated in the negative regulation of insulin signaling. Disruption of the mouse homolog of the gene encoding PTP-1B yielded healthy mice that, in the fed state, had blood glucose concentrations that were slightly lower and concentrations of circulating insulin that were one-half those of their PTP-1B+/+ littermates. The enhanced insulin sensitivity of the PTP-1B-/- mice was also evident in glucose and insulin tolerance tests. The PTP-1B-/- mice showed increased phosphorylation of the insulin receptor in liver and muscle tissue after insulin injection in comparison to PTP-1B+/+ mice. On a high-fat diet, the PTP-1B-/- and PTP-1B+/- mice were resistant to weight gain and remained insulin sensitive, whereas the PTP-1B+/+ mice rapidly gained weight and became insulin resistant. These results demonstrate that PTP-1B has a major role in modulating both insulin sensitivity and fuel metabolism, thereby establishing it as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity.

Association between plasma HDL-cholesterol concentration and Taq1B CETP gene polymorphism in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

The effects of CETP gene Taq1B polymorphism on plasma lipoproteins were investigated in 176 patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The distribution of CETP genotypes was similar to that previously described in the general population. A significant association was found between CETP genotype and both CETP and HDL cholesterol (HDL-c) concentrations. B1B1 had the highest CETP and the lowest HDL-c whereas B2B2 had the lowest CETP and the highest HDL-c. However, HDL-c was not correlated with CETP concentration, even when genetic groups were separately considered. By multivariate analysis, the determinants of HDL were body mass index, triglycerides concentration, net mass CE transfer, and CETP genotype. No association was found between CETP genetic groups and HDL or LDL size distribution. In contrast, net mass CET was positively and HDL and LDL sizes were negatively correlated with plasma triglyceride concentration. Overall, our work demonstrates that, in a population of diabetic patients where lipoprotein-related parameters vary over a large range, the association of CETP gene polymorphism with HDL-c is independent of plasma CETP concentration.

Alterations in composition and concentration of lipoproteins and elevated cholesteryl ester transfer in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM).

Cholesteryl esters (CE) exchange between lipoproteins through the action of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP). Situations at high risk for atherosclerosis are often accompanied by an accelerated net mass CE transfer (CET) from high density lipoproteins (HDL) to very low (VLDL) and low density lipoproteins (LDL). However, the question as to whether the net mass CET is increased or decreased in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) has led to controversial data. To clarify this point, we have undertaken a detailed study of CET in 105 NIDDM patients by comparison with 17 control subjects. Net mass CET was approximately doubled in NIDDM. Plasma CETP activity and unidirectional CET from HDL to VLDL + LDL (CETHDL-->VLDL + LDL) or from VLDL + LDL to HDL (CETVLDL + LDL-->HDL) were measured under controlled lipoprotein concentrations using radioisotopic assays. No difference was observed in plasma CETP activity between NIDDM and controls. In NIDDM, CETHDL-->VLDL + LDL and CETVLDL + LDL-->HDL were decreased by 25% and 20%, respectively, as a consequence of alterations in lipoprotein compositions. Net mass CET was highly correlated with plasma triglyceride (TG) concentration (r = 0.66, P < 0.001) but not with that of LDL-cholesterol (r = 0.06, P > 0.6). When TG levels were decreased following dietetic recommendations or insulinotherapy, the net mass CET was lowered accordingly. We conclude that net mass CET is accelerated in NIDDM in spite of a decreased unidirectional CETHDL-->VLDL + LDL. This results from a lowered CETVLDL + LDL-->HDL and from elevated TG concentration, and the latter probably reflects a concentration effect of VLDL.

Multiple abnormalities in the transfer of phospholipids from VLDL and LDL to HDL in non-insulin-dependent diabetes.

Transfers or exchanges of cholesterol esters and triglycerides between lipoproteins are mediated by a specialized protein referred to as cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), whereas those of phospholipids (PLs) are facilitated by both CETP and a specific phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP). In the present study, the authors compared phospholipid transfer (PLT) in normal subjects and in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes (NIDD), which is associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis. PLT was measured in different recombination experiments using an isotopic assay in which the transfer of labelled PLs from very low-density lipoprotein (VLDLs) and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) to high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) was determined. This allowed discrimination between the roles of VLDLs + LDLs, HDLs, and plasma PLT activity (PLTA). VLDL + LDL-dependent PLT, HDL-dependent PLT and PLTA were decreased in NIDD. VLDL + LDL-dependent PLT was found to be negatively correlated with the PL/apolipoprotein B ratio, whereas HDL-dependent PLT was positively correlated with the HDL2/HDL3 and PL/apolipoprotein A-I ratios and negatively correlated with the flow activation energy at the HDL surface. The HDL2/HDL3 ratio was positively correlated with PLTA but not with CETP, which confirms previous reports suggesting that PLTP might act as an HDL conversion factor. These data show that several abnormalities in PLT occur in NIDD and raise the question as to whether a lowered PLT might be a new characteristic of dis factors associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis.

Cholesterol ester transfer and high-density lipoprotein conversion in normolipidemic, hypercholesterolemic, and hypertriglyceridemic non-insulin-dependent diabetics.

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes (NIDD) is a situation at elevated risk for atherosclerosis. The plasma concentration of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) is often lowered. This may be accompanied by an abnormal composition and profile of HDL subfractions. These abnormalities might result in part from a defect in the net cholesterol ester transfer (CET) from HDL to apo B-containing lipoproteins. In the present work, we have studied the net CET and HDL conversion in normolipidemic, hypercholesterolemic, and hypertriglyceridemic NIDD, by comparison with control subjects. HDL conversion was determined by gradient gel electrophoresis after 23 h incubation in plasma with HDL3 labeled with a nontransferable synthetic marker. The net CET in normolipidemic NIDD was similar to that of controls, while it was approximately doubled in hypercholesterolemic or hypertriglyceridemic NIDD. In all groups, HDL conversion was comparable, with the exception of hypertriglyceridemic NIDD. In the latter group, the labeled HDL2/HDL3 ratio was increased, indicating a more complete conversion that was correlated with the triglyceride/cholesterol ester ratio in HDL. In addition, when lecithin:cholesterol acyl transferase was inhibited, a distinct peak of small HDL particles appeared in the density range of HDL2 in contrast with the other groups where only small HDL3 was formed. Recombination experiments showed that these abnormalities were attributable to the plasma in which labeled HDL3 was incubated rather than to the origin (control or hypertriglyceridemic NIDD) of labeled HDL3. These data suggest that in NIDD, hypertriglyceridemia may result in abnormalities of HDL conversion due to alterations in HDL composition.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)