Identification of Brain-Penetrant ATP-Competitive mTOR Inhibitors for CNS Syndromes.

The allosteric inhibitor of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) everolimus reduces seizures in tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) patients through partial inhibition of mTOR functions. Due to its limited brain permeability, we sought to develop a catalytic mTOR inhibitor optimized for central nervous system (CNS) indications. We recently reported an mTOR inhibitor (1) that is able to block mTOR functions in the mouse brain and extend the survival of mice with neuronal-specific ablation of the Tsc1 gene. However, 1 showed the risk of genotoxicity in vitro. Through structure-activity relationship (SAR) optimization, we identified compounds 9 and 11 without genotoxicity risk. In neuronal cell-based models of mTOR hyperactivity, both corrected aberrant mTOR activity and significantly improved the survival rate of mice in the Tsc1 gene knockout model. Unfortunately, 9 and 11 showed limited oral exposures in higher species and dose-limiting toxicities in cynomolgus macaque, respectively. However, they remain optimal tools to explore mTOR hyperactivity in CNS disease models.

Genotoxicity evaluation of a valsartan-related complex N-nitroso-impurity.

Recently, the formation of genotoxic and carcinogenic N-nitrosamines impurities during drug manufacturing of tetrazole-containing angiotensin-II blockers has been described. However, drug-related (complex) nitrosamines may also be generated under certain conditions, i.e., through nitrosation of vulnerable amines in drug substances in the presence of nitrite. An investigation of valsartan drug substance showed that a complex API-related N-nitrosamine chemically designated as (S)-2-(((2'-(1H-tetrazol-5-yl)-[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-yl)methyl)(nitroso)amino)-3-methylbutanoic acid (named 181-14) may be generated. 181-14 was shown to be devoid of a mutagenic potential in the Non-GLP Ames test. According to ICH M7 (R1) (2018), impurities that are not mutagenic in the Ames test would be considered Class 5 impurities and limited according to ICH Q3A (R2) and B (R2) (2006) guidelines. However, certain regulatory authorities raised the concern that the Ames test may not be sufficiently sensitive to detect a mutagenic potential of nitrosamines and requested a confirmatory in vivo study using a transgenic animal genotoxicity model. Our data show that 181-14 was not mutagenic in the transgenic gene mutation assay in MutaTMMice. The data support the conclusion that the Ames test is an adequate and sensitive test system to assess a mutagenic potential of nitrosamines.

Comprehensive review of genotoxicity data for diclofenac.

Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug discovered several decades ago, which has since been used by an estimated one billion patients and has demonstrated an acceptable safety profile. In support of its marketing approval, a comprehensive set of genotoxicity studies were conducted in vitro and in vivo. Despite the fact that these studies preceded both Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) requirements and International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) guidelines on genotoxicity testing, they were conducted using the best scientific principles and are considered appropriate by contemporary standards. In addition to bacterial mutagenicity and mammalian in vitro assays, repeat-dose somatic, germ cell and dominant lethal assays were conducted. These data are made available for the first time to offer researchers an opportunity to review the existing data set that unequivocally demonstrates that diclofenac sodium is not genotoxic. This is further substantiated by long-term bioassay data demonstrating that diclofenac sodium has no carcinogenic potential in rodents. However, more recently, new studies have been published showing a genotoxic potential for diclofenac in novel or modified in vitro test systems. These new publications are discussed in the context of the existing comprehensive data package.

Pig-a gene mutation assay study design: critical assessment of 3- versus 28-day repeat-dose treatment schedules.

The in vivo Pig-a assay is being used in safety studies to evaluate the potential of chemicals to induce somatic cell gene mutations. Ongoing work is aimed at developing an Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) test guideline to support routine use for regulatory purposes (OECD project number 4.93). Among the details that will need to be articulated in an eventual guideline are recommended treatment and harvest schedules. With this in mind, experiments reported herein were performed with Wistar Han rats exposed to aristolochic acid I (AA), 1,3-propane sultone, chlorambucil, thiotepa or melphalan using each of two commonly used treatment schedules: 3 or 28 consecutive days. In the case of the 3-day studies, blood was collected for Pig-a analysis on days 15 or 16 and 29 or 30. For the 28-day studies blood was collected on day 29 or 30. The effect of treatment on mutant reticulocytes and mutant erythrocytes was evaluated with parametric pair-wise tests. While each of the five mutagens increased mutant phenotype cell frequencies irrespective of study design, statistical significance was consistently achieved at lower dose levels when the 28-day format was used (e.g. 2.75 vs 20 mg/kg/bw for AA). To more thoroughly investigate the dose-response relationships, benchmark dose (BMD) analyses were performed with PROAST software. These results corroborate the pair-wise testing results in that lower BMD values were obtained with the 28-day design. Finally, mutagenic potency, as measured by BMD analyses, most consistently correlated with the mutagens' tumorigenic dose 50 values when the lengthier treatment schedule was used. Collectively, these results suggest that both 3- and 28-day treatment schedules have merit in hazard identification-type studies. That being said, for the purpose of regulatory safety assessments, there are clear advantages to study designs that utilise protracted exposures.

Intra- and inter-laboratory reproducibility of the rat blood Pig-a gene mutation assay.

The in vivo Pig-a assay is being used in safety studies to evaluate the potential of chemicals to induce somatic cell gene mutations. Ongoing work is aimed at developing an Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) test guideline to support routine use for regulatory purposes (OECD project number 4.93). Among the requirements for OECD approval are demonstrations of assay reliability, including reproducibility within and among laboratories. Experiments reported herein address the reproducibility of the rat blood Pig-a assay using the reference mutagens chlorambucil and melphalan. These agents were evaluated for their ability to induce Pig-a mutant erythrocytes in three separate studies conducted across two laboratories. Each of the studies utilized a common treatment schedule: 28 consecutive days of exposure via oral gavage. Whereas one laboratory studied Crl:CD(SD) rats, the other laboratory used Wistar Han rats. One or two days after cessation of treatment blood samples were collected for mutant reticulocyte and mutant erythrocyte measurements that were accomplished with the same analytical technique whereby samples were depleted of wildtype erythrocytes via immunomagnetic separation followed by flow cytometric enumeration of mutant phenotype cells (MutaFlow®). Dunnett's test results showed similar qualitative outcomes within and between laboratories, that is, each chemical and each study demonstrated statistically significant, dose-related increases in mutant reticulocyte and erythrocyte frequencies. Benchmark dose analysis (PROAST software) provided a means to quantitatively analyze the results, and the relatively tight, overlapping benchmark dose confidence intervals observed for each of the two chemicals indicate that within and between laboratory reproducibility of the Pig-a assay are high, adding further support for the development of an OECD test guideline.

Application of the adverse outcome pathway framework to genotoxic modes of action.

In May 2017, the Health and Environmental Sciences Institute's Genetic Toxicology Technical Committee hosted a workshop to discuss whether mode of action (MOA) investigation is enhanced through the application of the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework. As AOPs are a relatively new approach in genetic toxicology, this report describes how AOPs could be harnessed to advance MOA analysis of genotoxicity pathways using five example case studies. Each of these genetic toxicology AOPs proposed for further development includes the relevant molecular initiating events, key events, and adverse outcomes (AOs), identification and/or further development of the appropriate assays to link an agent to these events, and discussion regarding the biological plausibility of the proposed AOP. A key difference between these proposed genetic toxicology AOPs versus traditional AOPs is that the AO is a genetic toxicology endpoint of potential significance in risk characterization, in contrast to an adverse state of an organism or a population. The first two detailed case studies describe provisional AOPs for aurora kinase inhibition and tubulin binding, leading to the common AO of aneuploidy. The remaining three case studies highlight provisional AOPs that lead to chromosome breakage or mutation via indirect DNA interaction (inhibition of topoisomerase II, production of cellular reactive oxygen species, and inhibition of DNA synthesis). These case studies serve as starting points for genotoxicity AOPs that could ultimately be published and utilized by the broader toxicology community and illustrate the practical considerations and evidence required to formalize such AOPs so that they may be applied to genetic toxicity evaluation schemes. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 61:114-134, 2020. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Chemically induced aneuploidy in germ cells. Part II of the report of the 2017 IWGT workgroup on assessing the risk of aneugens for carcinogenesis and hereditary diseases.

As part of the 7th International Workshops on Genotoxicity Testing held in Tokyo, Japan in November 2017, a workgroup of experts reviewed and assessed the risk of aneugens for human health. The present manuscript is one of three manuscripts from the workgroup and reports on the unanimous consensus reached on the evidence for aneugens affecting germ cells, their mechanisms of action and role in hereditary diseases. There are 24 chemicals with strong or sufficient evidence for germ cell aneugenicity providing robust support for the ability of chemicals to induce germ cell aneuploidy. Interference with microtubule dynamics or inhibition of topoisomerase II function are clear characteristics of germ cell aneugens. Although there are mechanisms of chromosome segregation that are unique to germ cells, there is currently no evidence for germ cell-specific aneugens. However, the available data are heavily skewed toward chemicals that are aneugenic in somatic cells. Development of high-throughput screening assays in suitable animal models for exploring additional targets for aneuploidy induction, such as meiosis-specific proteins, and to prioritize chemicals for the potential to be germ cell aneugens is encouraged. Evidence in animal models support that: oocytes are more sensitive than spermatocytes and somatic cells to aneugens; exposure to aneugens leads to aneuploid conceptuses; and, the frequencies of aneuploidy are similar in germ cells and zygotes. Although aneuploidy in germ cells is a significant cause of infertility and pregnancy loss in humans, there is currently limited evidence that aneugens induce hereditary diseases in human populations because the great majority of aneuploid conceptuses die in utero. Overall, the present work underscores the importance of protecting the human population from exposure to chemicals that can induce aneuploidy in germ cells that, in contrast to carcinogenicity, is directly linked to an adverse outcome.

Targets and mechanisms of chemically induced aneuploidy. Part 1 of the report of the 2017 IWGT workgroup on assessing the risk of aneugens for carcinogenesis and hereditary diseases.

An aneuploidy workgroup was established as part of the 7th International Workshops on Genotoxicity Testing. The workgroup conducted a review of the scientific literature on the biological mechanisms of aneuploidy in mammalian cells and methods used to detect chemical aneugens. In addition, the current regulatory framework was discussed, with the objective to arrive at consensus statements on the ramifications of exposure to chemical aneugens for human health risk assessment. As part of these efforts, the workgroup explored the use of adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) to document mechanisms of chemically induced aneuploidy in mammalian somatic cells. The group worked on two molecular initiating events (MIEs), tubulin binding and binding to the catalytic domain of aurora kinase B, which result in several adverse outcomes, including aneuploidy. The workgroup agreed that the AOP framework provides a useful approach to link evidence for MIEs with aneuploidy on a cellular level. The evidence linking chemically induced aneuploidy with carcinogenicity and hereditary disease was also reviewed and is presented in two companion papers. In addition, the group came to the consensus that the current regulatory test batteries, while not ideal, are sufficient for the identification of aneugens and human risk assessment. While it is obvious that there are many different MIEs that could lead to the induction of aneuploidy, the most commonly observed mechanisms involving chemical aneugens are related to tubulin binding and, to a lesser extent, inhibition of mitotic kinases. The comprehensive review presented here should help with the identification and risk management of aneugenic agents.

Role of aneuploidy in the carcinogenic process: Part 3 of the report of the 2017 IWGT workgroup on assessing the risk of aneugens for carcinogenesis and hereditary diseases.

Aneuploidy is regarded as a hallmark of cancer, however, its role is complex with both pro- and anti-carcinogenic effects evident. In this IWGT review, we consider the role of aneuploidy in cancer biology; cancer risk associated with constitutive aneuploidy; rodent carcinogenesis with known chemical aneugens; and chemotherapy-related malignant neoplasms. Aneuploidy is seen at various stages in carcinogenesis. However, the relationship between induced aneuploidy occurring after exposure and clonal aneuploidy present in tumours is not clear. Recent evidence indicates that the induction of chromosomal instability (CIN), may be more important than aneuploidy per se, in the carcinogenic process. Down Syndrome, trisomy 21, is associated with altered hematopoiesis in utero which, in combination with subsequent mutations, results in an increased risk for acute megakaryoblastic and lymphoblastic leukemias. In contrast, there is reduced cancer risk for most solid tumours in Down Syndrome. Mouse models with high levels of aneuploidy are also associated with increased cancer risk for particular tumours with long latencies, but paradoxically other types of tumour often show decreased incidence. The aneugens reviewed that induce cancer in humans and animals all possess other carcinogenic properties, such as mutagenicity, clastogenicity, cytotoxicity, organ toxicities, hormonal and epigenetic changes which likely account for, or interact with aneuploidy, to cause carcinogenesis. Although the role that aneuploidy plays in carcinogenesis has not been fully established, in many cases, it may not play a primary causative role. Tubulin-disrupting aneugens that do not possess other properties linked to carcinogenesis, were not carcinogenic in rodents. Similarly, in humans, for the tubulin-disrupting aneugens colchicine and albendazole, there is no reported association with increased cancer risk. There is a need for further mechanistic studies on agents that induce aneuploidy, particularly by mechanisms other than tubulin disruption and to determine the role of aneuploidy in pre-neoplastic events and in early and late stage neoplasia.

Micronucleus Analysis by Flow Cytometry.

During the last two decades the micronucleus (MN) test has been extensively used as a genotoxicity screening tool of chemicals and in a variety of exploratory and mechanistic investigations. The MN is a biomarker for chromosomal damage or mitotic abnormalities since it can originate from chromosome fragments or whole chromosomes that fail to be incorporated into daughter nuclei during mitosis (Fenech et al., Mutagenesis 26: 125-132, 2011; Kirsch-Volders et al., Arch Toxicol 85: 873-899, 2011). The simplicity of scoring, accuracy, amenability to automation by image analysis or flow cytometry and the readiness to be applied to a variety of cell types either in vitro or in vivo made it a versatile tool that contributed to a large extent in our understanding of key toxicological issues related to genotoxins and their effects at the cellular and organism levels. Recently, the final acceptance of the in vitro MN test Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guideline 487 (OECD, Guideline for testing of chemicals: in vitro mammalian cell micronucleus test 487: in vitro mammalian cell micronucleus test (MNVIT). Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, 2010) together with the standard in vivo MN test OECD guideline 474 (OECD, Guideline for the testing of chemicals no. 474 mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, 1997) further positioned the assay as a key driver in the determination of the genotoxicity potential in exploratory research as well as in the regulatory environment. This book chapter covers to some extent the protocol designs and experimental steps necessary for a successful performance of the MN test and an accurate analysis of the MN by the flow cytometry technique.

Analysis of historical negative control group data from the in vitro micronucleus assay using human lymphocytes.

A database of the micronuclei counts was built up for historical negative control data from human lymphocyte in vitro micronuclei tests (MnVit) carried out in 8 laboratories with experience of the method. The mean incidence of micronucleated cells (mnt)/1000 cells ranged from 2.2/1000 to 15.9/1000. There were no large differences in incidence between the presence or absence of S9 mix or between different treatment lengths. There was also little evidence that different solvents affected the numbers of micronuclei appreciably. A number of laboratories did show significant inter-experiment variability, indicating that there remained unidentified factors affecting frequencies. Donor variance may be one such factor. Inter-individual variability may explain some of these differences. The approximate 7.5-fold difference in mnt/1000 scores in a relatively small group of experienced laboratories illustrates the potential complications that can arise if a metric like a fold increase was considered the only biologically important finding. Although there is inherent variability between experiments, it was evident that within a laboratory the overall laboratory mean remains constant over time. It is believed that these findings will provide help to laboratories conducting studies using human lymphocytes in the MnVit and to those involved in the assessment of MnVit results.

Induction of in vivo Pig-a gene mutation but not micronuclei by 5-(2-chloroethyl)-2'-deoxyuridine, an antiviral pyrimidine nucleoside analogue.

5-(2-Chloroethyl)-2'-deoxyuridine (CEDU) was developed as an antiviral drug. It has been studied in a number of in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity assays and is considered an unusual nucleoside analogue owing to its potent mutagenic potential, with little to no measurable clastogenic activity. Given this atypical profile, CEDU represented an interesting compound for evaluating the in vivo Pig-a gene mutation assay, a test that is undergoing extensive validation for regulatory safety applications. The current report describes two studies with 7-week-old male Wistar Han rats, one that exposed animals to several dose levels of CEDU for 5 consecutive days, the other for 28 consecutive days. Blood samples were collected at several time points and analysed for Pig-a mutant cell frequencies via flow cytometry. These Pig-a analyses were accompanied by micronucleated reticulocyte (MN-RET) measurements performed with blood samples collected 1 day after cessation of treatment. Both studies showed robust CEDU dose-related increases in Pig-a mutant reticulocytes and mutant erythrocytes. Conversely, neither experiment showed evidence of a CEDU-related MN-RET-inducing effect. These rat haematopoietic cell results were in good agreement with those of earlier mouse studies where in vivo mutagenesis was observed, without clastogenicity/aneuploidy. Taken together, these data add further support to the concept that the Pig-a assay represents an important complement to the widely used in vivo micronucleus assay, as it expands the range of important DNA lesions that can be detected in short-term as well as protracted exposure study designs.

X-ray Structures and Feasibility Assessment of CLK2 Inhibitors for Phelan-McDermid Syndrome.

CLK2 inhibition has been proposed as a potential mechanism to improve autism and neuronal functions in Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMDS). Herein, the discovery of a very potent indazole CLK inhibitor series and the CLK2 X-ray structure of the most potent analogue are reported. This new indazole series was identified through a biochemical CLK2 Caliper assay screen with 30k compounds selected by an in silico approach. Novel high-resolution X-ray structures of all CLKs, including the first CLK4 X-ray structure, bound to known CLK2 inhibitor tool compounds (e.g., TG003, CX-4945), are also shown and yield insight into inhibitor selectivity in the CLK family. The efficacy of the new CLK2 inhibitors from the indazole series was demonstrated in the mouse brain slice assay, and potential safety concerns were investigated. Genotoxicity findings in the human lymphocyte micronucleus test (MNT) assay are shown by using two structurally different CLK inhibitors to reveal a major concern for pan-CLK inhibition in PMDS.

Analysis of negative historical control group data from the in vitro micronucleus assay using TK6 cells.

The recent revisions of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) genetic toxicology test guidelines emphasize the importance of historical negative controls both for data quality and interpretation. The goal of a HESI Genetic Toxicology Technical Committee (GTTC) workgroup was to collect data from participating laboratories and to conduct a statistical analysis to understand and publish the range of values that are normally seen in experienced laboratories using TK6 cells to conduct the in vitro micronucleus assay. Data from negative control samples from in vitro micronucleus assays using TK6 cells from 13 laboratories were collected using a standard collection form. Although in some cases statistically significant differences can be seen within laboratories for different test conditions, they were very small. The mean incidence of micronucleated cells/1000 cells ranged from 3.2/1000 to 13.8/1000. These almost four-fold differences in micronucleus levels cannot be explained by differences in scoring method, presence or absence of exogenous metabolic activation (S9), length of treatment, presence or absence of cytochalasin B or different solvents used as vehicles. The range of means from the four laboratories using flow cytometry methods (3.7-fold: 3.5-12.9 micronucleated cells/1000 cells) was similar to that from the nine laboratories using other scoring methods (4.3-fold: 3.2-13.8 micronucleated cells/1000 cells). No laboratory could be identified as an outlier or as showing unacceptably high variability. Quality Control (QC) methods applied to analyse the intra-laboratory variability showed that there was evidence of inter-experimental variability greater than would be expected by chance (i.e. over-dispersion). However, in general, this was low. This study demonstrates the value of QC methods in helping to analyse the reproducibility of results, building up a 'normal' range of values, and as an aid to identify variability within a laboratory in order to implement processes to maintain and improve uniformity.

Setting Occupational Exposure Limits for Genotoxic Substances in the Pharmaceutical Industry.

In the pharmaceutical industry, genotoxic drug substances are developed for life-threatening indications such as cancer. Healthy employees handle these substances during research, development, and manufacturing; therefore, safe handling of genotoxic substances is essential. When an adequate preclinical dataset is available, a risk-based decision related to exposure controls for manufacturing is made following a determination of safe health-based limits, such as an occupational exposure limit (OEL). OELs are calculated for substances based on a threshold dose-response once a threshold is identified. In this review, we present examples of genotoxic mechanisms where thresholds can be demonstrated and OELs can be calculated, including a holistic toxicity assessment. We also propose a novel approach for inhalation Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) limit for genotoxic substances in cases where the database is not adequate to determine a threshold.

Genotoxicity assessment of peptide/protein-related biotherapeutics: points to consider before testing.

The ICH S6(R1) recommendations on safety evaluation of biotherapeutics have led to uncertainty in determining what would constitute a cause for concern that would require genotoxicity testing. A Health and Environmental Sciences Institute's Genetic Toxicology Technical Committee Workgroup was formed to review the current practice of genotoxicity assessment of peptide/protein-related biotherapeutics. There are a number of properties of peptide/protein-related biotherapeutics that distinguish such products from traditional 'small molecule' drugs and need to be taken into consideration when assessing whether genotoxicity testing may be warranted and if so, how to do it appropriately. Case examples were provided by participating companies and decision trees were elaborated to determine whether and when genotoxicity evaluation is needed for peptides containing natural amino acids, non-natural amino acids and other chemical entities and for unconjugated and conjugated proteins. From a scientific point of view, there is no reason for testing peptides containing exclusively natural amino acids irrespective of the manufacturing process. If non-natural amino acids, organic linkers and other non-linker chemical components have already been tested for genotoxicity, there is no need to re-evaluate them when used in different peptide/protein-related biotherapeutics. Unless the peptides have been modified to be able to enter the cells, it is generally more appropriate to evaluate the peptides containing the non-natural amino acids and other non-linker chemical moieties in vivo where the cleavage products can be formed. For linkers, it is important to determine if exposure to reactive forms are likely to occur and from which origin. When the linkers are anticipated to be potential mutagenic impurities they should be evaluated according to ICH M7. If linkers are expected to be catabolic products, it is recommended to test the entire conjugate in vivo, as this would ensure that the relevant 'free' linker forms stemming from in vivo catabolism are tested.

Co-assessment of cell cycle and micronucleus frequencies demonstrates the influence of serum on the in vitro genotoxic response to amorphous monodisperse silica nanoparticles of varying sizes.

Serum proteins have been shown to modulate the cytotoxic and genotoxic responses to nanomaterials. The aim was to investigate the influence of serum on the induction of micronuclei (MN) by nanoparticles (NPs) of different sizes. Therefore, A549 human lung carcinoma cells and amorphous monodisperse silica nanoparticles (SNPs) were used as models. Assessment of the cell viability, cell cycle changes and induction of MN by SNPs ranging from 12 to 174 nm was performed in presence or absence of serum, applying the in vitro flow cytometry-based MN assay. Here, it has been demonstrated that serum has an influence on these end points, with a lower cell viability in absence of serum compared with the presence of serum. Further, cell cycle changes, specifically, G1 and S-phase arrest, were observed in absence of serum for four out of six SNPs tested. A size-dependent MN induction was observed: larger SNPs being more active in absence of serum. In addition, the serum influence was characterised by a size-dependency for cytotoxic and genotoxic effects, with a higher influence of serum for smaller particles. The data indicate that the in vitro micronucleus assay in presence and absence of serum could be advised for hazard assessment because it demonstrates a higher sensitivity in serum-free conditions than in conditions with serum. However, this recommendation applies only if the cell line used is able to proliferate under serum-free conditions because cell division is a prerequisite for MN expression.

Flow cytometric determination of micronucleus frequency.

During the last two decades the micronucleus (MN) test has been extensively used as a genotoxicity screening tool of chemicals and in a variety of exploratory and mechanistic investigations. The MN is a biomarker for chromosomal damage or mitotic abnormalities, since it can originate from chromosome fragments or whole chromosomes that fail to be incorporated into daughter nuclei during mitosis (Fenech et al., Mutagenesis 26:125-132, 2011; Kirsch-Volders et al., Arch Toxicol 85:873-899, 2011). The simplicity of scoring, accuracy, amenability to automation by image analysis or flow cytometry, and readiness to be applied to a variety of cell types either in vitro or in vivo have made it a versatile tool that has contributed to a large extent in our understanding of key toxicological issues related to genotoxins and their effects at the cellular and organism levels. Recently, the final acceptance of the in vitro MN test guideline 487 (OECD Guideline for Testing of Chemicals, In vitro mammalian cell micronucleus test 487. In vitro mammalian cell micronucleus test (MNVIT). Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, 2010) together with the standard in vivo MN test OECD guideline 474 (OECD Guideline for The Testing of Chemicals, Mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test no. 474. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, 1997) will further position the assay as a key driver in the determination of the genotoxicity potential in exploratory research as well as in the regulatory environment. This chapter covers to some extent the protocol designs and experimental steps necessary for a successful performance of the MN test and an accurate analysis of the MN by the flow cytometry technique.

HUMN project initiative and review of validation, quality control and prospects for further development of automated micronucleus assays using image cytometry systems.

The use of micronucleus (MN) assays in in vitro genetic toxicology testing, radiation biodosimetry and population biomonitoring to study the genotoxic impacts of environment gene-interactions has steadily increased over the past two decades. As a consequence there has been a strong interest in developing automated systems to score micronuclei, a biomarker of chromosome breakage or loss, in mammalian and human cells. This paper summarises the outcomes of a workshop on this topic, organised by the HUMN project, at the 6th International Conference on Environmental Mutagenesis in Human Populations at Doha, Qatar, 2012. The aim of this paper is to summarise the outcomes of the workshop with respect to the set objectives which were: (i) Review current developments in automation of micronucleus assays by image cytometry; (ii) define the performance characteristics of automated MN scoring using image cytometry and methods of assessment for instrument validation and quality control and (iii) discuss the design of inter-laboratory comparisons and standardisation of micronucleus assays using automated image cytometry systems. It is evident that automated scoring of micronuclei by automated image cytometry using different commercially available platforms [e.g. Metafer (MetaSystems), Pathfinder™ (IMSTAR), iCyte(®) (Compucyte)], particularly for lymphocytes, is at a mature stage of development with good agreement between visual and automated scoring across systems (correlation factors ranging from 0.58 to 0.99). However, a standardised system of validation and calibration is required to enable more reliable comparison of data across laboratories and across platforms. This review identifies recent progress, important limitations and steps that need to be taken into account to enable the successful universal implementation of automated micronucleus assays by image cytometry.