Reliable, standardized measurements for cell mechanical properties.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has become indispensable for studying biological and medical samples. More than two decades of experiments have revealed that cancer cells are softer than healthy cells (for measured cells cultured on stiff substrates). The softness or, more precisely, the larger deformability of cancer cells, primarily independent of cancer types, could be used as a sensitive marker of pathological changes. The wide application of biomechanics in clinics would require designing instruments with specific calibration, data collection, and analysis procedures. For these reasons, such development is, at present, still very limited, hampering the clinical exploitation of mechanical measurements. Here, we propose a standardized operational protocol (SOP), developed within the EU ITN network Phys2BioMed, which allows the detection of the biomechanical properties of living cancer cells regardless of the nanoindentation instruments used (AFMs and other indenters) and the laboratory involved in the research. We standardized the cell cultures, AFM calibration, measurements, and data analysis. This effort resulted in a step-by-step SOP for cell cultures, instrument calibration, measurements, and data analysis, leading to the concordance of the results (Young's modulus) measured among the six EU laboratories involved. Our results highlight the importance of the SOP in obtaining a reproducible mechanical characterization of cancer cells and paving the way toward exploiting biomechanics for diagnostic purposes in clinics.

Coupled mechanical mapping and interference contrast microscopy reveal viscoelastic and adhesion hallmarks of monocyte differentiation into macrophages.

Monocytes activated by pro-inflammatory signals adhere to the vascular endothelium and migrate from the bloodstream to the tissue ultimately differentiating into macrophages. Cell mechanics and adhesion play a crucial role in macrophage functions during this inflammatory process. However, how monocytes change their adhesion and mechanical properties upon differentiation into macrophages is still not well understood. In this work, we used various tools to quantify the morphology, adhesion, and viscoelasticity of monocytes and differentiatted macrophages. Combination of atomic force microscopy (AFM) high resolution viscoelastic mapping with interference contrast microscopy (ICM) at the single-cell level revealed viscoelasticity and adhesion hallmarks during monocyte differentiation into macrophages. Quantitative holographic tomography imaging revealed a dramatic increase in cell volume and surface area during monocyte differentiation and the emergence of round and spread macrophage subpopulations. AFM viscoelastic mapping showed important stiffening (increase of the apparent Young's modulus, E0) and solidification (decrease of cell fluidity, ß) on differentiated cells that correlated with increased adhesion area. These changes were enhanced in macrophages with a spread phenotype. Remarkably, when adhesion was perturbed, differentiated macrophages remained stiffer and more solid-like than monocytes, suggesting a permanent reorganization of the cytoskeleton. We speculate that the stiffer and more solid-like microvilli and lamellipodia might help macrophages to minimize energy dissipation during mechanosensitive activities. Thus, our results revealed viscoelastic and adhesion hallmarks of monocyte differentiation that may be important for biological function.

Advances in mechanical biomarkers.

Mechanical biomarkers distinguish health conditions through quantitative mechanical measurements. The emergence and establishment of nanotechnology in the last decades have provided new tools to obtain mechanical biomarkers at the nanoscale. Mechanical measurements are reproducible, label-free, start to be applied in vivo can be high throughput, and require small samples. Mechanical protocols in clinical practice at the macro scale like palpation or blood pressure measurement are routinely used by medical doctors. Nanotechnology brought mechanical sensing to the next scale, where cells, tissues, and proteins can be probed and linked to medical conditions. Mechanical changes in cells and tissues may be detected before other markers, such as protein expression, providing an important advantage as biomarkers. In the present review, we explore the biomarker's historical evolution, describe mechanical biomarkers on various diseases and novel discoveries in the nanomechanical field for their characterization. We conclude that mechanical biomarkers are establishing novel hallmarks in diseases, in several cases for early diagnostics of diseases and discovery of drug targets in the proteins involved in the mechanical changes, while advances in instrumentation are bringing commercial products into the clinical practice. Mechanical biomarkers along with clinical testing are establishing an important niche in the market, whose demand is increasing due to the expansion of personalized medicine and unmet needs in the clinics.

Multi-Step Extracellular Matrix Remodelling and Stiffening in the Development of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) of the lung is a filamentous network composed mainly of collagens, elastin, and proteoglycans that provides structural and physical support to its populating cells. Proliferation, migration and overall behaviour of those cells is greatly determined by micromechanical queues provided by the ECM. Lung fibrosis displays an aberrant increased deposition of ECM which likely changes filament organization and stiffens the ECM, thus upregulating the profibrotic profile of pulmonary cells. We have previously used AFM to assess changes in the Young's Modulus (E) of the ECM in the lung. Here, we perform further ECM topographical, mechanical and viscoelastic analysis at the micro- and nano-scale throughout fibrosis development. Furthermore, we provide nanoscale correlations between topographical and elastic properties of the ECM fibres. Firstly, we identify a softening of the ECM after rats are instilled with media associated with recovery of mechanical homeostasis, which is hindered in bleomycin-instilled lungs. Moreover, we find opposite correlations between fibre stiffness and roughness in PBS- vs bleomycin-treated lung. Our findings suggest that changes in ECM nanoscale organization take place at different stages of fibrosis, with the potential to help identify pharmacological targets to hinder its progression.

Human septins organize as octamer-based filaments and mediate actin-membrane anchoring in cells.

Septins are cytoskeletal proteins conserved from algae and protists to mammals. A unique feature of septins is their presence as heteromeric complexes that polymerize into filaments in solution and on lipid membranes. Although animal septins associate extensively with actin-based structures in cells, whether septins organize as filaments in cells and if septin organization impacts septin function is not known. Customizing a tripartite split-GFP complementation assay, we show that all septins decorating actin stress fibers are octamer-containing filaments. Depleting octamers or preventing septins from polymerizing leads to a loss of stress fibers and reduced cell stiffness. Super-resolution microscopy revealed septin fibers with widths compatible with their organization as paired septin filaments. Nanometer-resolved distance measurements and single-protein tracking further showed that septin filaments are membrane bound and largely immobilized. Finally, reconstitution assays showed that septin filaments mediate actin-membrane anchoring. We propose that septin organization as octamer-based filaments is essential for septin function in anchoring and stabilizing actin filaments at the plasma membrane.

Viscoelastic properties of suspended cells measured with shear flow deformation cytometry.

Numerous cell functions are accompanied by phenotypic changes in viscoelastic properties, and measuring them can help elucidate higher level cellular functions in health and disease. We present a high-throughput, simple and low-cost microfluidic method for quantitatively measuring the elastic (storage) and viscous (loss) modulus of individual cells. Cells are suspended in a high-viscosity fluid and are pumped with high pressure through a 5.8 cm long and 200 µm wide microfluidic channel. The fluid shear stress induces large, ear ellipsoidal cell deformations. In addition, the flow profile in the channel causes the cells to rotate in a tank-treading manner. From the cell deformation and tank treading frequency, we extract the frequency-dependent viscoelastic cell properties based on a theoretical framework developed by R. Roscoe [1] that describes the deformation of a viscoelastic sphere in a viscous fluid under steady laminar flow. We confirm the accuracy of the method using atomic force microscopy-calibrated polyacrylamide beads and cells. Our measurements demonstrate that suspended cells exhibit power-law, soft glassy rheological behavior that is cell-cycle-dependent and mediated by the physical interplay between the actin filament and intermediate filament networks.

Cells in the human body are viscoelastic: they have some of the properties of an elastic solid, like rubber, as well as properties of a viscous fluid, like oil. To carry out mechanical tasks ­ such as, migrating through tissues to heal a wound or to fight inflammation ­ cells need the right balance of viscosity and elasticity. Measuring these two properties can therefore help researchers to understand important cell tasks and how they are impacted by disease. However, quantifying these viscous and elastic properties is tricky, as both depend on the time-scale they are measured: when pressed slowly, cells appear soft and liquid, but they turn hard and thick when rapidly pressed. Here, Gerum et al. have developed a new system for measuring the viscosity and elasticity of individual cells that is fast, simple, and inexpensive. In this new method, cells are suspended in a specialized solution with a consistency similar to machine oil which is then pushed with high pressure through channels less than half a millimeter wide. The resulting flow of fluid shears the cells, causing them to elongate and rotate, which is captured using a fast camera that takes 500 images per second. Gerum et al. then used artificial intelligence to extract each cell's shape and rotation speed from these images, and calculated their viscosity and elasticity based on existing theories of how viscoelastic objects behave in fluids. Gerum et al. also investigated how the elasticity and viscosity of cells changed with higher rotation frequencies, which corresponds to shorter time-scales. This revealed that while higher frequencies made the cells appear more viscous and elastic, the ratio between these two properties remained the same. This means that researchers can compare results obtained from different experimental techniques, even if the measurements were carried out at completely different frequencies or time-scales. The method developed by Gerum et al. provides a fast an inexpensive way for analyzing the viscosity and elasticity of cells. It could also be a useful tool for screening the effects of drugs, or as a diagnostic tool to detect diseases that affect the mechanical properties of cells.