Fundamental Considerations and Analysis of the Energy Distribution in Laser Turning with Ultrashort Laser Pulses.

This article discusses the process of the laser turning of rotational symmetric, cylindrical components using ultrashort laser pulses with respect to the geometrical conditions and the resulting energy distribution during the laser turning process. As a result, process predictions and potential process optimizations are feasible. Particular attention is drawn to the laser spot formation on the cylindrical surface of the work piece in conjunction with the positioning of the laser beam relative to the rotation axis of the specimen. Based on fundamental calculations and experimental results, an optimum processing strategy is discussed, whereat the use of a trepanning optic in the laser turning process and the forming of a particular surface structure is additionally being issued.

Preparation of Dispersed Copper(II) Oxide Nanosuspensions as Precursor for Femtosecond Reductive Laser Sintering by High-Energy Ball Milling.

This contribution demonstrates and discusses the preparation of finely dispersed copper(II) oxide nanosuspensions as precursors for reductive laser sintering (RLS). Since the presence of agglomerates interferes with the various RLS sub-processes, fine dispersion is required, and oversized particles must be identified by a measurement methodology. Aside from the established method of scanning electron microscopy for imaging individual dried particles, this work applies the holistic and statistically more significant laser diffraction in combination with dynamic image analysis in wet dispersion. In addition to direct ultrasonic homogenization, high-energy ball milling is introduced for RLS, to produce stable nanosuspensions with a high fine fraction, and, above all, the absence of oversize particles. Whereas ultrasonic dispersion stagnates at particle sizes between 500 nm and 20 µm, even after 8 h, milled suspension contains a high proportion of finest particles with diameters below 100 nm, no agglomerates larger than 1 µm and a trimodal particle size distribution with the median at 50 nm already, after 100 min of milling. The precursor layers produced by doctor blade coating are examined for their quality by laser scanning microscopy. The surface roughness of such a dry film can be reduced from 1.26 µm to 88 nm by milling. Finally, the novel precursor is used for femtosecond RLS, to produce homogeneous, high-quality copper layers with a sheet resistance of 0.28Ω/sq and a copper mass concentration of 94.2%.

Drilling Sequence Optimization Using Evolutionary Algorithms to Reduce Heat Accumulation for Femtosecond Laser Drilling with Multi-Spot Beam Profiles.

We report on laser drilling borehole arrays using ultrashort pulsed lasers with a particular focus on reducing the inadvertent heat accumulation across the workpiece by optimizing the drilling sequence. For the optimization, evolutionary algorithms are used and their results are verified by thermal simulation using Comsol and experimentally evaluated using a thermal imaging camera. To enhance process efficiency in terms of boreholes drilled per second, multi-spot approaches are employed using a spatial light modulator. However, as higher temperatures occur across the workpiece when using simultaneous multi-spot drilling as compared to a single-spot process, a subtle spatial distribution and sequence of the multi-spot approach has to be selected in order to limit the resulting local heat input over the processing time. Different optimization approaches based on evolutionary algorithms aid to select those drilling sequences which allow for the combination of a high efficiency of multi-spot profiles, a low-generated process temperature and a high-component quality. In particular, using a 4 × 4 laser spot array allows for the drilling of 40,000 boreholes in less than 76 s (526 boreholes/s) with a reduced temperature increase by about 35%, as compared to a single spot process when employing an optimized drilling sequence.

Integration of Bragg gratings in aerosol-jetted polymer optical waveguides for strain monitoring capabilities.

We demonstrate and discuss the integration of Bragg gratings in aerosol-jetted polymer optical waveguides, produced in the optical assembly and connection technology for component-integrated bus systems (OPTAVER) process. By using a femtosecond laser and adaptive beam shaping, an elliptical focal voxel generates different types of single pulse modification by nonlinear absorption in the waveguide material, which are arranged periodically to form Bragg gratings. Integration of a single grating structure or, alternatively, an array of Bragg grating structures in the multimode waveguide yields a pronounced reflection signal with typical multimodal properties, i.e., a number of reflection peaks with non-Gaussian shapes. However, the main wavelength of reflection, located around 1555 nm, is evaluable by means of an appropriate smoothing algorithm. When loaded by mechanical bending, a pronounced Bragg wavelength shift of this reflected peak up to 160 pm is detected. This demonstrates that the additively manufactured waveguides can be used not only for signal transmission but also as a sensor.

Static and Dynamic Mechanical Behaviour of Hybrid-PBF-LB/M-Built and Hot Isostatic Pressed Lattice Structures.

We report on a comprehensive study of the mechanical properties of maraging steel body-centred cubic lattice structures fabricated by a hybrid additive manufacturing technology that combines laser powder bed fusion with in situ high-speed milling. As the mechanical properties of additive manufactured components are inferior to, e.g., cast components, surface modifications can improve the mechanical behaviour. Different hybrid additive manufacturing technologies have been designed using additive and subtractive processes, improving process quality. Following this, mechanical testing is performed with respect to static tensile properties and dynamic stress, hardness, and porosity, comparing specimens manufactured by laser powder bed fusion only to those manufactured by the hybrid approach. In addition, the influence of different heat-treatment techniques on the mechanical behaviour of the lattice structures is investigated, namely solution and aging treatment as well as hot isostatic pressing. Thus, the influence of the superior surface quality due to the hybrid approach is evaluated, leading to, e.g., an offset of about 14-16% for the static testing of HIP lattice structures. Furthermore, the dynamic load behaviour can be improved with a finished surface, heading to a shift of the different zones of fatigue behaviour in the testing of hybrid-built specimens.

Investigation of Topographical Alterations in Titanium-Zirconium-Alloy Implant Threads following Er:YAG Irradiation.

The aim of the current experimental study was to comparatively assess the surface alterations in titanium and titanium-zirconium alloy implants in terms of thread pitch topography after irradiation with an Er:YAG laser, which is recommended in the literature for its sterilizing effect in the treatment of contaminated implant surfaces. Roxolid® and SLA® (Sand-blasted, Large-grit, Acid-etched) implants from Straumann® company with the same macro topography were investigated. The surface treatment was carried out using a wavelength of 2940 nm, 60 s irradiation time, a frequency of 10 Hz, and energies between 120 mJ and 250 mJ. The alterations were quantitatively analyzed by conducting roughness analysis via white light interferometry and qualitatively using SEM images. Roxolid® could particularly maintain its surface topography at a level of 160 mJ. At an energy level of 250 mJ, the surface properties of the pitch could be significantly altered for the first time. Compared to the Standard Plus dental implants studied, no distinct removal of the material from the surface was detected. The alloy properties of Roxolid® confirm the manufacturer's statement in terms of stability and could offer advantages in peri-implantitis management if decontamination has been selected. However, as a part of a respective strategy, smoothening of a Roxolid® implant surface requires a significantly higher energy level compared to SLA-Standard® dental implants.

Femtosecond Laser-Based Micromachining of Rotational-Symmetric Sapphire Workpieces.

Sapphire is a robust and wear-resistant material. However, efficient and high-quality micromachining is still a challenge. This contribution demonstrates and discusses two novels, previously unreported approaches for femtosecond laser-based micromachining of rotational-symmetric sapphire workpieces, whereas both methods are in principal hybrids of laser scanning and laser turning or laser lathe. The first process, a combination of a sequential linear hatch pattern in parallel to the workpiece's main axis with a defined incremental workpiece rotation, enables the fabrication of sapphire fibers with diameters of 50 µm over a length of 4.5 mm. Furthermore, sapphire specimens with a diameter of 25 µm over a length of 2 mm can be fabricated whereas an arithmetical mean height, i.e., Sa parameter, of 281 nm is achieved. The second process combines a constant workpiece feed and orthogonal scanning with incremental workpiece rotation. With this approach, workpiece length limitations of the first process are overcome and sapphire fibers with an average diameter of 90 µm over a length of 20 cm are manufactured. Again, the sapphire specimen exhibits a comparable surface roughness with an average Sa value of 249 nm over 20 cm. Based on the obtained results, the proposed manufacturing method paves an innovative and flexible, all laser-based way towards the fabrication or microstructuring of sapphire optical devices, and thus, a promising alternative to chemical processes.

Optimization of Heat Accumulation during Femtosecond Laser Drilling Borehole Matrices by Using a Simplex Algorithm.

We report on an optimization study of percussion drilling thin metal sheets employing a high repetition rate, high power femtosecond laser with respect to the resulting heat accumulation. A specified simplex algorithm was employed to optimize the spatial drilling sequence, whereas a simplified thermal simulation using COMSOL was validated by comparing its results to the temperature measurements using an infrared camera. Optimization for drilling borehole matrices was aspired with respect to the generated temperature across the processed specimen, while the drilling strategy was altered in its spatial drilling sequence and by using multi-spot approaches generated by a spatial light modulator. As a result, we found that an optimization strategy based on limited consecutive holes in a Moore neighborhood led to reduced temperatures and the shortest process times.

UV-Femtosecond-Laser Structuring of Cyclic Olefin Copolymer.

We report on the laser ablation of cyclic olefin copolymer using an amplified ultrashort pulsed laser in the ultraviolet spectral range. In addition to a high ablation depth per laser-structured layer up to 74 µm at a fluence of 22 J cm-2, an excellent mean roughness Ra of laser-patterned surfaces down to 0.5 µm is demonstrated. Furthermore, with increasing fluence, increasing ablation efficiencies up to 2.5 mm3 W-1 min-1 are determined. Regarding the quality of the ablation, we observed steep ablation flanks and low debris formation, though for fluences above 10.5 J cm-2 the formation of troughs was observed, being attributed to multiple reflections on the ablation flanks. For comparison, laser ablation was performed under identical conditions with an infrared laser wavelength. The results highlight that UV ablation exhibits significant advantages in terms of ablation efficiency, surface roughness and quality. Moreover, our results show that a larger UV focus spot accelerates the ablation process with comparable quality, paving the way for high-power UV ultrashort pulsed lasers towards an efficient and qualitative tool for the laser machining of cyclic olefin copolymer. The production of complex microfluidics further underlines the suitability of this type of laser.

Ultrashort Pulsed Laser Drilling of Printed Circuit Board Materials.

We report on a comprehensive study of laser percussion microvia drilling of FR-4 printed circuit board material using ultrashort pulse lasers with emission in the green spectral region. Laser pulse durations in the pico- and femtosecond regime, laser pulse repetition rates up to 400 kHz and laser fluences up to 11.5 J/cm2 are applied to optimize the quality of microvias, as being evaluated by the generated taper, the extension of glass fiber protrusions and damage of inner lying copper layers using materialography. The results are discussed in terms of the ablation threshold for FR-4 and copper, heat accumulation and pulse shielding effects as a result of pulse to pulse interactions. As a specific result, using a laser pulse duration of 2 ps appears beneficial, resulting in small glass fiber protrusions and high precision in the stopping process at inner copper layer. If laser pulse repetition rates larger than 100 kHz are applied, we find that the processing quality can be increased by heat accumulation effects.

Image Processing Algorithm for In Situ Monitoring Fiber Laser Remote Cutting by a High-Speed Camera.

We present an in situ process monitoring approach for remote fiber laser cutting, which is based on evaluating images from a high-speed camera. A specifically designed image processing algorithm allows the distinction between complete and incomplete cuts by analyzing spectral and geometric information of the melt pool from the captured images of the high-speed camera. The camera-based monitoring system itself is fit to a conventional laser deflection unit for use with high-power fiber lasers, with the optical detection path being coaxially aligned to the incident laser. Without external illumination, the radiation of the melt from the process zone is recorded in the visible spectral range from the top view and spatially and temporally resolved. The melt pool size and emitted sparks are evaluated in dependence of machining parameters such as feed rate, cycles, and focus position during cutting electrical sheets.

Tool Wear and Milling Characteristics for Hybrid Additive Manufacturing Combining Laser Powder Bed Fusion and In Situ High-Speed Milling.

We report on milling and tool wear characteristics of hybrid additive manufacturing comprising laser powder bed fusion and in situ high-speed milling, a particular process in which the cutter mills inside the powder bed without any cooling lubricant being applicable. Flank wear is found to be the dominant wear characteristic with its temporal evolution over utilization period revealing the typical s-shaped dependence. The flank wear land width is measured by microscopy and correlated to the achievable surface roughness of milled 3D-printed parts, showing that for flank wear levels up to 100 µm a superior surface roughness below 3 µm is accessible for hybrid additive manufacturing. Further, based on this correlation recommended tool, life scenarios can be deduced. In addition, by optimizing the finishing tool start position and the number of afore-built layers, the milling process is improved with respect to the maximum millable angle for undercut surfaces of 3D-printed parts to 30° for the roughing process and to 40° for the entire machining process including finishing.

Ultrashort pulsed laser backside ablation of fused silica.

We report on the fabrication of rectangular microchannels with vertical sidewalls in fused silica by laser backside ablation. A 515 nm femtosecond laser is focused by an objective with a NA of 0.5 through the sample on the glass/air interface, allowing processing from the backside into the bulk material. Experimental investigations reveal a logarithmically increasing depth of the channels with an increasing number of scans, while keeping the focal position fixed. A certain number of scans has to be applied to generate rectangular shaped channels while their depth can be controlled by the applied fluence from 2.64 µm to 13.46 µm and a corresponding ablation roughness Ra between 0.20 µm and 0.33 µm. The channel width can be set directly via the number of parallel ablated lines demonstrated in a range from 10 µm to 50 µm. By adjusting the focal position after each scan the channel depth can be extended to 49.77 µm while maintaining a rectangular channel geometry. Finally, concentric rings are ablated to demonstrate the flexibility of the direct writing process.

Design Rules for Hybrid Additive Manufacturing Combining Selective Laser Melting and Micromilling.

We report on a comprehensive study to evaluate fundamental properties of a hybrid manufacturing approach, combining selective laser melting and high speed milling, and to characterize typical geometrical features and conclude on a catalogue of design rules. As for any additive manufacturing approach, the understanding of the machine properties and the process behaviour as well as such a selection guide is of upmost importance to foster the implementation of new machining concepts and support design engineers. Geometrical accuracy between digitally designed and physically realized parts made of maraging steel and dimensional limits are analyzed by stripe line projection. In particular, we identify design rules for numerous basic geometric elements like walls, cylinders, angles, inclinations, overhangs, notches, inner and outer radii of spheres, chamfers in build direction, and holes of different shape, respectively, as being manufactured by the hybrid approach and compare them to sole selective laser melting. While the cutting tool defines the manufacturability of, e.g., edges and corners, the milling itself improves the surface roughness to Ra < 2µm. Thus, the given advantages of this hybrid process, e.g., space-resolved and custom-designed roughness and the superior geometrical accuracy are evaluated. Finally, we exemplify the potential of this particular promising hybrid approach by demonstrating an injection mold with a conformal cooling for a charge socket for an electro mobile.

Enhanced ablation efficiency using GHz bursts in micromachining fused silica.

We report on micromilling cavities into fused silica by a 1030 nm femtosecond laser using 2.17 GHz bursts. The milled cavities show an increased depth per layer for a higher number of pulses per burst while the ablation efficiency is also increased. The maximum ablation efficiency for the optimum fluence achieved in our experiments is 3.05mm3/min/W for a burst number of 10, which is 7.4 times higher than for the non-burst condition (0.41mm3/min/W). Furthermore, the ablation threshold for each sub-pulse is significantly reduced from 0.64J/cm2 for the non-burst condition to 0.15J/cm2 for 10 bursts. Beside the ablation efficiency, the surface roughness is also increased with the increasing burst number, while two ablation behaviors can be distinguished, namely, a gentle ablation regime for lower burst numbers and a coarse ablation regime, dominated by breaking out the surface rather than ablating it.

Two-photon polymerization with diode lasers emitting ultrashort pulses with high repetition rate.

In this Letter, we investigate the resolution of two-photon polymerization (2PP) with an amplified mode-locked external cavity diode laser with adjustable pulse length and a high repetition rate. The experimental results are analyzed with a newly developed 2PP model. Even with low pulse peak intensity, the produced structural dimensions are comparable to those generated by traditional 2PP laser sources. Thus, we show that a compact monolithic picosecond laser diode without amplification and with a repetition rate in the GHz regime can also be applied for 2PP. These results show the high application potential of compact mode-locked diode lasers for low-cost and compact 2PP systems.

Fabrication and evaluation of negative axicons for ultrashort pulsed laser applications.

We report on the fabrication and evaluation of a sharp tip negative axicon paving the way for applications in high-power ultrashort pulsed laser systems. The negative axicon is manufactured by applying a two-step all laser-based process chain consisting of ultrashort pulsed laser ablation and CO2 laser polishing finishing the component in less than 5 minutes. The finalized negative axicon reveals a surface roughness of 18 nm, fulfilling optical quality. Two measurement setups, including the ultrashort pulsed laser itself, are used to evaluate the formation of Bessel beams in detail. By applying a focusing lens behind the negative axicon, well-developed Bessel beams are generated while their lengths depend on the distance between the negative axicon and the lens. Furthermore, the diameter of the Bessel beams increase strongly with the propagation distance. By adding a second focusing lens, Bessel beams are generated at its focal position, being almost invariant of its position. Hence, the typical Bessel beam intensity distribution is observed over an entire moving range of this second lens of 300 mm. While these Bessel beams show superior quality in terms of sharp peaks with homogeneous concentric rings, only minor deviations in intensity and diameter are observed over the moving range.

Femtosecond laser inscription of waveguides and Bragg gratings in transparent cyclic olefin copolymers.

We report on a femtosecond laser based fabrication technique that enables simultaneous single-step generation of optical waveguides and Bragg gratings inside bulk cyclic olefin copolymers. Due to the nonlinear absorption of focused and spatially modulated laser radiation with a wavelength of 514 nm and a pulse duration of 450 fs, a modification concluding a refractive index shift increase inside the substrate can be achieved. A sophisticated characterization of the generated waveguides by means of an elaborate cut-back method reveals a maximum attenuation of 3.2 dB/cm. Additionally, a Mach-Zehnder interferometer is used to examine the waveguide's refractive index profile. The integrated Bragg grating structures exhibit reflectivities up to 95 % and a spectral full width at half maximum of 288 pm, at a Bragg wavelength of 1582 nm, whereas the grating period can be deliberately chosen by adapting the fabrication parameters. Thus, due to its increased flexibility and the resulting dispensability of cost-intensive phase masks, this method constitutes an especially promising fabrication process for polymer Bragg gratings inside of bulk materials.

Microchannels inside bulk PMMA generated by femtosecond laser using adaptive beam shaping.

In this contribution, we report on the generation of internal microchannels with basically unlimited channel length inside of PMMA bulk material by femtosecond laser. A precisely controllable and stable circular channel cross section is obtained by using a spatial light modulator to compensate the writing depth depending spherical aberration. Furthermore, the generation of a rotatable elliptical input beam by adaptive optics ensures a fitting of the beam shaping to the writing direction. In this study, we report on both, the effect of the ellipticity of the input beam and the effect of a correction of the spherical aberration on the circularity of the resulting internal microchannels. Moreover, we demonstrate the application of this writing technique by creating microfluidic testing structures inside of a transparent standard polymer.

Fabrication of a high-quality axicon by femtosecond laser ablation and CO2 laser polishing for quasi-Bessel beam generation.

We report on the fabrication of an axicon by applying a two-step manufacturing process including a 1030 nm femtosecond and a 10.6 µm CO2 laser. First, the pre-defined axicon geometry is generated by high-precision femtosecond layer-by-layer ablation. In order to meet high surface quality requirements, inevitable stipulated for optical use, the surface of the thus structured axicon is smoothened by a subsequent CO2 laser polishing process. The finalized axicon fulfills optical quality as the surface roughness Ra is significantly reduced from 0.56 µm to 34 nm. For the evaluation of the optical quality, the axicon is placed in a measurement setup including the femtosecond laser. Comparison between the calculated Bessel beam for an ideal axicon and the quasi-Bessel beam generated and measured by the fabricated axicon reveals excellent agreement, verifying our precise manufacturing method.