The Impact of Vocal Tremor on Deglutition: A Pilot Study.

OBJECTIVE: Vocal tremor (VT) poses treatment challenges due to uncertain pathophysiology. VT is typically classified into two phenotypes: isolated vocal tremor (iVT) and essential tremor-related voice tremor (ETvt). The impact of phenotypes on upper aerodigestive tract physiology during swallowing remains unclear. Qualitative and quantitative measures were employed to characterize tremor phenotypes and investigate the effects on swallowing physiology. METHODS: Eleven ETvt participants (1 Male, 10 Female; x̄ age = 74) and 8 iVT participants (1 Male, 7 Female; x̄ age = 71) swallowed 20 mL boluses in cued and uncued conditions under standardized fluoroscopic visualization. Sustained/a/productions were captured to assess the rate and extent of fundamental frequency (F0) modulation. Penetration and Aspiration Scale (PAS) scores were obtained and swallowing biomechanics were captured using Swallowtail™ software. Participants also completed the Swallowing Quality of Life (SWAL-QOL) questionnaire. RESULTS: Hypopharyngeal transit was faster in both VT phenotypes compared with Swallowtail™ normative reference data. Total pharyngeal transit times, however, were only faster in patients with iVT, relative to reference data. No significant differences were observed on the SWAL-QOL or PAS between tremor phenotypes. SWAL-QOL scores revealed that these patients rarely reported dysphagia symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Subtle differences in swallowing patterns were observed across VT phenotypes, possibly related to adaptive mechanisms resulting in quicker pharyngeal bolus transit. Most patients did not report swallowing issues or dysphagia symptoms. This study is foundational for larger studies on this challenging population. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4 Laryngoscope, 2024.

Relationship Between National Residency Matching Program (NRMP) Rank Order and Otolaryngology Residency Performance.

Objective: The process of resident recruitment is costly, and our surgical residency program expends significant time on the resident selection process while balancing general duties and responsibilities. The aim of our study was to explore the relationship between otolaryngology-head and surgery (OHNS) residents' National Residency Matching Program (NRMP) rank-list position at our institution and their subsequent residency performance. Study Design: Retrospective cohort study. Setting: Single site institution. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed 7 consecutive resident classes (2011-2017) at a single tertiary OHNS residency program. We reviewed each resident's absolute rank order in the NRMP matches. Measures of residency performance included overall faculty evaluation during postgraduate year 5 (PGY5), annual in-service examination scores (scaled score), and the number of manuscripts published in peer-reviewed journals. Correlations between NRMP rank order and subsequent residency performance were assessed using Spearman's rho correlation coefficients (ρ). Results: Twenty-eight residents entered residency training between 2011 and 2017. The average rank position of the trainees during this study was 9.7 (range: 1-22). We found no significant correlation between rank order and faculty evaluation during PGY5 (ρ = 0.097, P = .625) or number of publications (ρ = -0.256, P = .189). Additionally, when assessing the association between rank order and annual Otolaryngology Training Examination-scaled scores, no statistically significant relationship was found between the 2 (P > .05). Conclusion: Our results showed that there were no significant correlations between OHNS rank order and various measures of success in residency training, which aligns with existing literature. Further investigation of this relationship should be conducted to ensure the applicability of our findings.

Investigating Disparities in Hypopharyngeal/Laryngeal Cancer Survival in Florida With Geospatial Mapping Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Identify predictors of overall survival (OS) after hypopharyngeal/laryngeal cancer in Florida. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using data from the Florida Cancer Data System (FCDS) on patients diagnosed with hypopharyngeal or laryngeal cancer from 2010-2017. Primary outcome was OS. Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated from univariable and multivariable Cox regression models for OS. Data was analyzed from November 1, 2022, to June 30, 2023. RESULTS: We analyzed 6771 patients, who were primarily male (81.2%), White non-Hispanic (WNH) (78.2%), publicly insured (70.1%), married (51.8%), and residents of urban counties (73.6%). Black patients were more likely to be younger at diagnosis (38.9%), single (43.4%), to have distant SEER stage disease (25.6%). Median OS were lowest among patients who were uninsured (34 months), with hypopharyngeal site disease (18 months), and a smoking history (current: 34 months, former: 46 months, no smoking: 63 months). Multivariable Cox regression analysis showed worse OS for single/unmarried vs married (HR 1.47 [95%CI: 1.36-1.59], P < .001), history of tobacco use (current: HR 1.62 [95%CI: 1.440-1.817], P < .001; former smokers: (HR 1.28 [95%CI: 1.139-1.437], P < .001) vs no history). Improved OS was observed among White Hispanics (WH) vs WNH (HR .73 [95%CI: .655-.817], P < .001) and women vs men (HR .88 [95%CI: .807-.954], P = .002). Geographical mapping showed that mortality rates were highest in census tracts with low income and education. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that sociodemographic and clinical factors impact OS from hypopharyngeal/laryngeal cancer in Florida and vary geographically within the state. These results will help guide future public health interventions.

Alterations in nonesterified free fatty acid trafficking rather than hyperandrogenism contribute to metabolic health in obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether alterations in nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) dynamics or degree of hyperandrogenism (HA) contribute to the difference in insulin sensitivity between women with metabolically healthy obese polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) (MHO-PCOS) and women with metabolically unhealthy obese PCOS (MUO-PCOS). DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional study. SETTING: Tertiary-care academic center. PATIENTS: One hundred twenty-five obese women with PCOS. INTERVENTION: Consecutive obese (body mass index [BMI] ≥ 30 kg/m2) oligo-ovulatory women (n = 125) with PCOS underwent an oral glucose tolerance test and a subgroup of 16 participants underwent a modified frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test to determine insulin-glucose and -NEFA dynamics. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Degree of insulin resistance (IR) in adipose tissue (AT) basally (Adipo-IR) and dynamically (the nadir in NEFA levels observed [NEFAnadir], the time it took for NEFA levels to reach nadir [TIMEnadir], and the percent suppression in plasma NEFA levels from baseline to nadir [%NEFAsupp]); peak lipolysis rate (SNEFA) and peak rate of NEFA disposal from plasma pool (KNEFA); whole-body insulin-glucose interaction (acute response of insulin to glucose [AIRg], insulin sensitivity index [Si], glucose effectiveness [Sg], and disposition index [Di]); and HA (hirsutism score, total and free testosterone levels, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels). RESULTS: A total of 85 (68%) women were MUO-PCOS and 40 (32%) were MHO-PCOS using the homeostasis model of assessment of IR. Subjects with MUO-PCOS and MHO-PCOS did not differ in mean age, BMI, waist-to-hip ratio, HA, and lipoprotein levels. By a modified frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test, eight women with MUO-PCOS had lesser Si, KNEFA, and the percent suppression in plasma NEFA levels from baseline to nadir (%NEFAsupp) and greater TIMEnadir, NEFAnadir, and baseline adipose tissue IR index (Adipo-IR) than eight subjects with MHO-PCOS, but similar fasting NEFA levels and SNEFA. Women with MUO-PCOS had a higher homeostasis model of assessment-ß% and fasting insulin levels than women with MHO-PCOS. In bivalent analysis, Si correlated strongly and negatively with Adipo-IR and NEFAnadir, weakly and negatively with TIMEnadir, and positively with KNEFA and %NEFAsupp, in women with MUO-PCOS only. CONCLUSION: Independent of age and BMI, women with MUO-PCOS have reduced NEFA uptake and altered insulin-mediated NEFA suppression, but no difference in HA, compared with women with MHO-PCOS. Altered insulin-mediated NEFA suppression, rather than HA or lipolysis rate, contributes to variations in insulin sensitivity among obese women with PCOS.

Vocal Health Assessment of Professional Performers Returning to the Stage After the COVID-19 Pandemic Shutdown.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: This study assessed the vocal health of performers returning to full-time performance after the COVID-19 pandemic shutdown and investigated how differences in voice usage, exposure to voice care professionals, and vocal pathology before and during the pandemic contributed to variability in self-perceived and instrumental vocal outcome measures. STUDY DESIGN: This was a prospective, case-control observational study conducted at a single outpatient site. METHODS: Twenty-two patients, 11 cases and 11 controls, were enrolled for the study. All participants were full-time singing professionals prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Cases were recruited from patients presenting to a tertiary care voice center for vocal or pharyngeal complaints. Controls were healthy volunteers recruited from the general population of professional singers in the surrounding metropolitan area. All participants provided responses to the Voice Handicap Index-10, Evaluation of Ability to Sing Easily, and Laryngopharyngeal Measure of Perceived Sensation validated questionnaires as well as a study survey with questions regarding vocal use and history prior to and during the pandemic. All participants underwent instrumental acoustic and videostroboscopic voice evaluations. RESULTS: Cases had poorer outcome measures overall and were more likely to report their voices were worse at study enrollment when compared to their prepandemic perception (P = 0.027). Cases tended to be older and less likely to have pursued alternative employment during the pandemic that involved increased speaking voice use (27% vs 55%), but these differences were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: There was a variable response among performers to the prolonged hiatus from performing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Those with poorer outcomes tended to be older and may have used their voice less during the pandemic. These findings are consistent with detraining periods in the exercise physiology literature and support the construct of treating vocal performers as vocal athletes.

Association of Sociodemographic Factors on the Presentation and Management of Unilateral Vocal Fold Immobility.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association of social determinants of health (SDOH) on the presentation and management of unilateral vocal fold immobility (UVFI). METHODS: Retrospective chart review of 207 adult UVFI patients evaluated at a tertiary-care hospital between 2018 and 2019 was performed. Sociodemographic factors including gender, median household income, preferred language, and insurance type were recorded. Confounding clinical factors including etiology of UVFI, Voice Handicap Index-10 (VHI-10) score, laryngoscopic findings, and intervention history were extracted from medical records. Multivariable logistic regression was performed using sociodemographic and clinical factors. RESULTS: Patient demographics and socioeconomic status were not associated with time to presentation. Patients presenting with glottic insufficiency and UVFI due to malignancy or recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) sacrifice had a shorter time to presentation. Higher household income was associated with greater number of interventions (p = 0.02), but neither income nor insurance type affected intervention type or timing. Female patients were less likely to undergo injection medialization laryngoplasty (odds ratio [OR] 0.25, p = 0.005). Older patients were more likely to undergo injection (OR 1.04, p = 0.027). Patients with large glottic gaps (OR 21.2, p = 0.014) and higher VHI-10 scores (OR 1.06, p = 0.047) were more likely to undergo surgery. CONCLUSION: Higher household income was associated with greater number of interventions and longer duration of care at a private tertiary-care hospital. RLN sacrifice, known malignancy, and glottic insufficiency significantly reduced the time to presentation. Type of intervention received was a complex interplay of both demographic and clinical factors. Large prospective studies should examine the role of SDOH in the presentation and management of UVFI. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4 Laryngoscope, 134:297-304, 2024.

Management of Periodic Fever, Aphthous Stomatitis, Pharyngitis, Adenitis with Intracapsular Tonsillectomy.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to present 2 children clinically diagnosed with periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis (PFAPA) syndrome and treated with intracapsular tonsillectomy with adenoidectomy (ITA). METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of 2 children who were referred for an otolaryngology consultation between 2019 and 2022 for surgical treatment of PFAPA syndrome. Both patients had symptoms strongly suggestive of PFAPA and were at risk for total tonsillectomy (TT) complications. ITA was performed using a microdebrider. Both patients were followed up postoperatively to assess for symptomatic resolution and complications. RESULTS: Two children exhibited recurrent febrile episodes prior to ITA. The procedure was efficacious in both patients, with neither experiencing postoperative complications or recurring PFAPA symptoms for over 1 year after surgery. CONCLUSION: Our study reported on the use of ITA as a surgical treatment option for PFAPA. We showed that ITA eliminated febrile attacks and was safely performed without postoperative complications in 2 pediatric patients after 1-year follow-up. Future studies involving larger cohorts of PFAPA patients and lengthier follow-ups will need to be conducted to further evaluate ITA as a surgical option. Laryngoscope, 134:1967-1969, 2024.

A New Approach for Diagnosis and Surveillance of Infantile Subglottic Hemangioma in the Era of Propranolol Use: A Case Series.

OBJECTIVE: To report our institutional experience in diagnosing and surveilling patients with infantile subglottic hemangioma (SGH) using in-office flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy (FFL) with video technology, without requiring operative endoscopy in the era of propranolol use. METHODS: A retrospective case series was conducted on 4 children diagnosed with SGH between 2016 and 2022 at our institution. RESULTS: Awake FFL with video technology provided adequate visualization of SGH lesions for diagnosis, without any complications. Serial examinations of the airway were performed in the outpatient setting and each SGH gradually regressed, with marked improvement in respiratory symptoms within 48 hours of oral propranolol initiation. CONCLUSION: Our findings showed that in select patients, FFL with video technology can successfully identify SGH lesions without general anesthesia exposure. FFL may be used as a low-risk screening tool for propranolol therapy initiation in some patients, but operative endoscopy should remain the gold standard procedure for others. By utilizing FFL in this manner, it is possible to diagnose SGH lesions and start propranolol therapy without exposing all patients to the risks of operative endoscopy.

Spontaneous closure of a superior sagittal sinus dural arteriovenous fistula with an extensive angioarchitectural network: A case report and systematic review of the literature.

Background: Intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVFs) have been documented to occasionally spontaneously regress. However, the mechanism responsible for this occurrence remains speculative. Methods: We present a case of a Borden II - Cognard IIa+b DAVF involving the superior sagittal sinus (SSS) with bilateral external carotid artery supply that regressed spontaneously. A systematic literature review was conducted to explore the current theories explaining the spontaneous regression of DAVFs according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Results: A total of 26 studies and 54 cases were included in our results. Of the included cases, 57.14% of cases were Borden I, 16.33% were Borden II, and 26.53% were Borden III. Ruptured status or intracranial hemorrhage was documented in 24.1% of all cases, the majority of which (69.2%) were in cases with aggressive lesions (Borden II or greater). The most commonly involved location was the transverse sinus (38.89% of cases, n = 21), and the SSS was only involved in 12.96% of all cases. 50% of included cases proposed a mechanism responsible for spontaneous regression. The most frequently proposed mechanisms were thrombosis of the involved sinus/chronic inflammatory changes or direct endothelial injury, endoluminal stasis, and thrombogenic effects of contrast medium during angiography. We present the case of a 54-year-old woman with an aggressive ruptured DAVF that likely developed following a pediatric traumatic brain injury that was left untreated before she presented to our institution after significant delay. Her DAVF regressed on repeat angiography before neurovascular intervention without a clear identifying mechanism as proposed by the current literature. Conclusion: Our results suggest that spontaneous regression is not necessarily associated with lower risk DAVFs. The present case offers a unique long-term insight into the natural history of an aggressive ruptured DAVF of the SSS that regressed without intervention. Further research into the natural history of DAVFs will be helpful in deducing key factors leading to spontaneous regression.

The Effectiveness of Ultraviolet Smart D60 in Reducing Contamination of Flexible Fiberoptic Laryngoscopes.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of disinfection protocols utilizing a ultraviolet (UV) Smart D60 light system with Impelux™ technology with a standard Cidex ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) disinfection protocol for cleaning flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopes (FFLs). METHODS: Two hundred FFLs were tested for bacterial contamination after routine use, and another 200 FFLs were tested after disinfection with one of four methods: enzymatic detergent plus Cidex OPA (standard), enzymatic detergent plus UV Smart D60, microfiber cloth plus UV Smart D60, and nonsterile wipe plus UV Smart D60. Pre- and post-disinfection microbial burden levels and positive culture rates were compared using Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA and Fisher's two-sided exact, respectively. RESULTS: After routine use, approximately 56% (112/200) of FFLs were contaminated, with an average contamination level of 9,973.7 ± 70,136.3 CFU/mL. The standard reprocessing method showed no positive cultures. The enzymatic plus UV, microfiber plus UV, and nonsterile wipe plus UV methods yielded contamination rates of 4% (2/50), 6% (3/50), and 12% (6/50), respectively, with no significant differences among the treatment groups (p > 0.05). The pre-disinfection microbial burden levels decreased significantly after each disinfection technique (p < 0.001). The average microbial burden recovered after enzymatic plus UV, microfiber plus UV, and nonsterile wipe plus UV were 0.40 CFU/mL ± 2, 0.60 CFU/mL ± 2.4, and 12.2 CFU/mL ± 69.5, respectively, with no significant difference among the treatment groups (p > 0.05). Micrococcus species (53.8%) were most frequently isolated, and no high-concern organisms were recovered. CONCLUSION: Disinfection protocols utilizing UV Smart D60 were as effective as the standard chemical disinfection protocol using Cidex OPA. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: NA Laryngoscope, 133:3512-3519, 2023.

Adipose Tissue Dysfunction in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome.

PURPOSE: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a complex genetic trait and the most common endocrine disorder of women, clinically evident in 5% to 15% of reproductive-aged women globally, with associated cardiometabolic dysfunction. Adipose tissue (AT) dysfunction appears to play an important role in the pathophysiology of PCOS even in patients who do not have excess adiposity. METHODS: We undertook a systematic review concerning AT dysfunction in PCOS, and prioritized studies that assessed AT function directly. We also explored therapies that targeted AT dysfunction for the treatment of PCOS. RESULTS: Various mechanisms of AT dysfunction in PCOS were identified including dysregulation in storage capacity, hypoxia, and hyperplasia; impaired adipogenesis; impaired insulin signaling and glucose transport; dysregulated lipolysis and nonesterified free fatty acids (NEFAs) kinetics; adipokine and cytokine dysregulation and subacute inflammation; epigenetic dysregulation; and mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum and oxidative stress. Decreased glucose transporter-4 expression and content in adipocytes, leading to decreased insulin-mediated glucose transport in AT, was a consistent abnormality despite no alterations in insulin binding or in IRS/PI3K/Akt signaling. Adiponectin secretion in response to cytokines/chemokines is affected in PCOS compared to controls. Interestingly, epigenetic modulation via DNA methylation and microRNA regulation appears to be important mechanisms underlying AT dysfunction in PCOS. CONCLUSION: AT dysfunction, more than AT distribution and excess adiposity, contributes to the metabolic and inflammation abnormalities of PCOS. Nonetheless, many studies provided contradictory, unclear, or limited data, highlighting the urgent need for additional research in this important field.

The Revolving Door of Residency: Predictors of Residency Attrition for Urology Matriculants Between 2001 and 2016.

OBJECTIVE: To add to the literature which has reported higher attrition rates amongst General Surgery residents who identify as female or underrepresented in medicine (URM), we aimed to determine how these factors contribute to attrition within Urology. We hypothesized that women and URM Urology residents will similarly have higher attrition rates. METHODS: The Association of American Medical Colleges surveyed residents to obtain matriculation and attrition status from 2001 to 2016. Data included demographics, medical school type, and specialty. A multivariable logistic regression model was performed to identify predictors of attrition amongst Urology residents. RESULTS: In our sample of 4321 Urology residents, 22.5% were female, 9.9% were URM, 25.8% were older than 30 years, 2.5% were Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine graduates and 4.7% were International Medical Graduates. On multivariable analysis, being female (Odds ratio [OR] = 2.3, P < .001) was associated with increased residency attrition when compared to male residents. Additionally, residents who matriculated between 30 and 39 years old (OR = 1.9, P < .001) or ≥40 years old (OR = 10.7, P < .001) had an increased risk of residency attrition when compared to residents who matriculated between 26 and 29 years old. Attrition rates for URM trainees have recently increased. CONCLUSION: Women, older, and URM Urology residents experience higher rates of attrition compared to their peers. It is essential to identify trainees with a higher likelihood of attrition to determine system-level changes to combat departures from training programs. Our study highlights the need to foster more inclusive training environments and change institutional cultures to diversify the surgical workforce.

The Development of an Artificial Intelligence Model Based Solely on Computer Tomography Successfully Predicts Which Patients Will Pass Obstructing Ureteral Calculi.

OBJECTIVE: To improve upon prior attempts to predict which patients will pass their obstructing ureteral stones, we developed a machine learning algorithm to predict the passage of obstructing ureteral stones using only the CT scan at a patient's initial presentation. METHODS: We obtained Institutional Review Board approval to conduct a retrospective study by extracting data from all patients with an obstructing 3-10 mm ureteral stone. We included patients with sufficient data to be categorized as having either passed or failed to pass an obstructing ureteral stone. We developed a 3D-convolutional neural network (CNN) model using a dynamic learning rate, the Adam optimizer, and early stopping with 10-fold cross-validation. Using this model, we calculated the area under the curve (AUC) and developed a model confusion matrix, which we compared with a model based only on the largest dimension of the stone. RESULTS: A total of 138 patients met inclusion criteria and had adequate images that could be preprocessed and included in the study. Seventy patients failed to pass their ureteral stones, and 68 patients passed their stones. For the 3D-CNN model, the mean AUC was 0.95 with an overall mean sensitivity of 95% and mean specificity of 77%, which outperformed the model based on stone-size. CONCLUSION: The 3D-CNN model predicts which patients will pass their obstructing ureteral stones based on CT scan alone and does not require any further measurements. This can provide useful clinical information which may help obviate the need for a delay in care for patients who inevitably require surgical intervention.

Paralysis Versus Non-Paralysis Anesthesia for Operative Laryngoscopy: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To compare outcomes between two standard-of-care anesthesia regimens for operative laryngoscopy: general anesthesia with a neuromuscular blocking agent (NMBA) versus remifentanil and propofol (non-NMBA). METHODS: This was a prospective, single-blinded, randomized controlled trial at a tertiary care center. Patients were randomized to either anesthesia using rocuronium (NMBA) or with remifentanil/propofol infusion alone (non-NMBA). Intraoperative impressions, anesthesia data, and post-operative patient surveys were collected. RESULTS: Sixty-one patients who underwent suspension laryngoscopy from 2020 to 2022 were included (25 female, 36 male, ranging 20-81 years). Thirty patients were enrolled in the NMBA arm and 31 patients in the non-NMBA arm. Heart rate and mean arterial pressure were higher in the NMBA (p < 0.01). Patients in the non-NMBA group were more likely to require vasopressors (p = 0.04, RR = 3.08 [0.86-11.05]). Surgeons were more frequently satisfied with conditions in the NMBA group (86.7%) compared to the non-NMBA group (58.1%, p < 0.01). Procedures were more likely to be paused due to movement in the non-NMBA group (45.1%) compared to the NMBA group (16.6%, p < 0.03, RR = 2.26 [1.02-4.99]). Patients in the non-NMBA group were more likely to endorse myalgia the week after surgery (44%) compared to the NMBA group (8.3%, p < 0.01) and reported higher average pain levels on a 0-10 pain scale (3.7) compared to the paralysis group (2.0). CONCLUSIONS: Anesthesia with rocuronium was associated with better intraoperative conditions and postoperative pain compared to anesthesia with remifentanil/propofol. Remifentanil/propofol were associated with lower blood pressure and suppression of laryngoscopy-associated tachycardia. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2 Laryngoscope, 133:2654-2664, 2023.

An assessment of primary health care costs and resource requirements in Kaduna and Kano, Nigeria.

Introduction: The availability of quality primary health care (PHC) services in Nigeria is limited. The PHC system faces significant challenges and the improvement and expansion of PHC services is constrained by low government spending on health, especially on PHC. Out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditures dominate health spending in Nigeria and the reliance on OOP payments leads to financial burdens on the poorest and most vulnerable populations. To address these challenges, the Nigerian government has implemented several legislative and policy reforms, including the National Health Insurance Authority (NHIA) Act enacted in 2022 to make health insurance mandatory for all Nigerian citizens and residents. Our study aimed to determine the costs of providing PHC services at public health facilities in Kaduna and Kano, Nigeria. We compared the actual PHC service delivery costs to the normative costs of delivering the Minimum Service Package (MSP) in the two states. Methods: We collected primary data from 50 health facilities (25 per state), including PHC facilities-health posts, health clinics, health centers-and general hospitals. Data on facility-level recurrent costs were collected retrospectively for 2019 to estimate economic costs from the provider's perspective. Statewide actual costs were estimated by extrapolating the PHC cost estimates at sampled health facilities, while normative costs were derived using standard treatment protocols (STPs) and the populations requiring PHC services in each state. Results: We found that average actual PHC costs per capita at PHC facilities-where most PHC services should be provided according to government guidelines-ranged from US$ 18.9 to US$ 28 in Kaduna and US$ 15.9 to US$ 20.4 in Kano, depending on the estimation methods used. When also considering the costs of PHC services provided at general hospitals-where approximately a third of PHC services are delivered in both states-the actual per capita costs of PHC services ranged from US$ 20 to US$ 30.6 in Kaduna and US$ 17.8 to US$ 22 in Kano. All estimates of actual PHC costs per capita were markedly lower than the normative per capita costs of delivering quality PHC services to all those who need them, projected at US$ 44.9 in Kaduna and US$ 49.5 in Kano. Discussion: Bridging this resource gap would require significant increases in expenditures on PHC in both states. These results can provide useful information for ongoing discussions on the implementation of the NHIA Act including the refinement of provider payment strategies to ensure that PHC providers are remunerated fairly and that they are incentivized to provide quality PHC services.

Menstrual dysfunction in polycystic ovary syndrome: association with dynamic state insulin resistance rather than hyperandrogenism.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relation of menstrual cyclicity abnormalities to hyperandrogenism (HA) and dynamic state insulin resistance (IR) in oligo-ovulatory women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional study. SETTING: Tertiary-care academic center. PATIENT(S): Fifty-seven women with PCOS (1990 National Institutes of Health criteria) and 57 healthy control women matched by body mass index (BMI). INTERVENTION(S): Short insulin tolerance test (ITT). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Menstrual cyclicity, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), measures of HA (i.e., modified Ferriman-Gallwey score, total and free testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate), and the rate constant for plasma glucose disappearance (kITT) derived from the short ITT. RESULT(S): Adjusting for age, BMI, and ethnicity, the mean androgen measures were higher and SHBG trended lower, kITT was lower, and the prevalence of IR was higher in PCOS than in controls, independent of menstrual cyclicity. The optimal cutoff point for IR was set at kITT value of 3.57%/minute or lower. Overall, 79% of the women with PCOS had IR. To control further for the effect of ethnicity, a subgroup of 46 non-Hispanic white PCOS participants were studied; those who exhibited amenorrhea (n = 15) or oligomenorrhea (n = 19) had or tended toward having a lower kITT and a higher prevalence of IR than the women with PCOS and oligo-ovulatory eumenorrhea (n = 12). The kITT trended lower and the prevalence of IR trended higher in women with PCOS and amenorrhea than those with oligomenorrhea. The measures of SHBG and HA were similar across the three menstrual groups. CONCLUSION(S): Oligo-ovulatory women with PCOS and overt oligo/amenorrhea have greater degrees of IR but not HA when compared with oligo-ovulatory eumenorrheic women with PCOS, suggesting that IR and hyperinsulinemia but not HA play a role in determining the degree of menstrual dysfunction, which can be used as a clinical marker for the degree of IR in oligo-ovulatory PCOS.

Screening for Androgen Excess in Women: Accuracy of Self-Reported Excess Body Hair Growth and Menstrual Dysfunction.

CONTEXT: Epidemiologic studies of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) are limited, especially in populations where diagnostic resources are less available. In these settings, an accurate, low-cost screening tool would be invaluable. OBJECTIVE: To test the use of a simple questionnaire to identify women at increased risk for PCOS and androgen excess (AE) disorders. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study from 2006-2010. SETTING: Community-based. PARTICIPANTS: Women aged 14 to 45 years. INTERVENTION: A screening telephone questionnaire consisting of 3 questions was tested, where participants were asked to self-assess the presence/absence of male-like hair and menstrual irregularity. Participants were then invited to undergo a direct examination, including completing a medical history and undergoing a modified Ferriman-Gallwey (mFG) hirsutism score, ovarian ultrasound, and measurement of circulating total and free testosterone, DHEAS, TSH, prolactin and 17-hydroxyprogesterone levels. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Accuracy of questionnaire in predicting PCOS, AE, and irregular menses. RESULTS: Participants with self-assessed irregular menses and/or excess hair were labeled "Possible Androgen Excess (Poss-AE)" and those self-assessed with regular menses and no excess hair were labeled "Probable Non-Androgen Excess (Non-AE)." The study was completed in 206/298 (69%) of the Poss-AE and in 139/192 (73%) of the Non-AE. Of Poss-AE and Non-AE subjects, 82.5% and 15.8%, respextively, presented with PCOS. The calculated sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of the 3-question telephone survey to predict PCOS was 89%, 78%, 85%, and 83%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: A simple telephone questionnaire, based on self-assessment of body hair and menstrual status, can be used with a high predictive value to identify women at risk for AE disorders, including PCOS, and to detect healthy controls. This approach could be an important tool for needed epidemiologic studies.

Adipocyte Insulin Resistance in PCOS: Relationship With GLUT-4 Expression and Whole-Body Glucose Disposal and ß-Cell Function.

CONTEXT: Impaired sensitivity to the antilipolytic action of insulin in adipose tissue (AT) may play a role in determining metabolic dysfunction in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that insulin resistance (IR) in AT is associated with whole-body insulin sensitivity and ß-cell function in PCOS. RESEARCH DESIGN AND SETTING: Prospective cross-sectional study. METHODS: Eighteen participants with PCOS and 18-matched control participants underwent a modified frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test (mFSIVGTT); subgroups underwent single-slice computed tomography scans determining AT distribution and adipocyte glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT-4) expression. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: IR in AT in basal (by the adipose insulin resistance index [Adipo-IR]) and dynamic (mFSIVGTT-derived indices of insulin-mediated nonesterified fatty acids [NEFA] suppression [NEFAnadir, TIMEnadir, and %NEFAsupp]) states; whole-body insulin-mediated glucose uptake and insulin secretion in basal (by homeostatic model assessment [HOMA]-IR and HOMA-ß%) and dynamic (mFSIVGTT-derived insulin sensitivity index [Si], acute insulin response to glucose [AIRg], and disposition index [Di]) states. RESULTS: Participants with PCOS had higher HOMA-IR and HOMA-ß%, lower Si and Di, higher longer TIMEnadir, higher Adipo-IR and NEFAnadir, and a trend toward lower GLUT-4, than the control group participants. Adipo-IR was associated with dynamic state IR in AT (NEFAnadir TIMEnadir, and %NEFAsupp), but only in PCOS, and with HOMA-IR and HOMA-ß% in both groups. NEFAnadir and TIMEnadir were negatively and %NEFAsupp positively associated with Si only in PCOS, but not with AIRg and Di, or GLUT-4 expression. CONCLUSION: Women with PCOS demonstrated increased IR in AT, which is closely associated with whole-body IR but not with dynamic state ß-cell function or adipocyte GLUT-4 gene expression.

Racial and ethnic differences in the metabolic response of polycystic ovary syndrome.

CONTEXT: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a highly prevalent disorder associated with insulin resistance (IR) and compensatory hyperinsulinemia. Although variations in cardiometabolic risks across race and ethnicities have been reported in the general population, racial/ethnic disparities in the metabolic dysfunction of PCOS remain relatively unstudied. OBJECTIVES: To determine whether markers of metabolic function differ in nondiabetic Asian American (AS), African American (AA), Hispanic White (HW), compared to non-Hispanic White (NHW) women with PCOS. DESIGN AND SETTING: Prospective cross-sectional study in a tertiary institution. PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS: A total of 259 nondiabetic women with PCOS (by NIH 1990 criteria) who completed a 2-hour 75-g oral glucose tolerance test measuring plasma glucose and insulin levels. Basal IR and insulin secretion, assessed by the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR and HOMA-ß%, respectively), and two-hour hyperglycaemia and hyperinsulinemia after an oral glucose load, were compared in 21 AS, 24 AA, 53 HW and 161 NHW consecutive nondiabetic adult PCOS women. RESULTS: After adjusting for age and body mass index, HW and AA PCOS women demonstrated higher fasting and post-glucose challenge insulin levels, and higher HOMA-IR and HOMA-ß%, than NHW women, although glucose levels were similar. In contrast, AS PCOS women had or tended to have lower HOMA-ß% than any other racial/ethnic groups, lower HOMA-IR, and fasting and post-challenge insulin levels than AA or HW, and also had higher (albeit still normal) mean post-challenge glucose levels than NHW women with PCOS despite similar HOMA-IR, and fasting insulin and post-challenge insulin levels. Waist-hip ratio was similar across the four groups. CONCLUSION: Both HW and AA women with PCOS have increased basal state IR and higher ß-cell response, and post-challenge hyperinsulinemia compared to NHW and AS subjects. The trend towards a lesser insulin response among Asian women requires further investigation. These findings suggest that the screening and management of metabolic dysfunction in PCOS should consider patients' race/ethnicity.

Adipocyte expression of glucose transporter 1 and 4 in PCOS: Relationship to insulin-mediated and non-insulin-mediated whole-body glucose uptake.

BACKGROUND: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a highly prevalent endocrine-metabolic disorder associated with insulin resistance (IR). In IR states, non-insulin-mediated glucose uptake (NIMGU) may increase to compensate for declining insulin-mediated glucose uptake (IMGU), although this does not appear to be the case in PCOS. The underlying molecular mechanisms for this deficiency remain unclear. OBJECTIVES: To compare adipocyte glucose transporter 1 and 4 (GLUT-1 and GLUT-4) gene expression in PCOS women and matched controls, and to determine whether changes in GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 are associated with concomitant alterations in whole-body glucose uptake. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: In this prospective cross-sectional study, 23 women with PCOS (by NIH 1990 criteria) and 23 matched controls were studied for subcutaneous abdominal adipocyte GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 mRNA expression (by real-time PCR), and basal whole-body IR (by HOMA-IR) and insulin secretion (by HOMA-ß%). A subset of six PCOS women and six matched controls also underwent a mFSIVGTT to determine dynamic state glucose uptake (by insulin sensitivity index [Si] and glucose effectiveness [Sg]) and insulin secretion (by the acute insulin response to glucose [AIRg] and the disposition index [Di]). RESULTS: For similar adiposity (BMI and waist-hip ratio), PCOS women tended to have higher HOMA-IR and lower Di and Si, and higher HOMA-ß% and lower GLUT-4 than controls, while GLUT-1 was similar. GLUT-1 was positively associated with Sg (reflecting NIMGU) and GLUT-4 positively with Si (reflecting IMGU). GLUT-4 was associated negatively with HOMA-IR and HOMA-ß% and positively with Di for the entire cohort but not with AIRg. Both GLUT-1 and GLU-4 were negatively associated with BMI, but not with each other. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that IR secondary to a lower IMGU and enhanced insulin secretion in PCOS is in part attributable to a reduction in adipocyte GLUT-4 expression that is not accompanied by a compensatory increase in GLUT-1 expression.