Molecular probes for super-resolution imaging of drug dynamics.

Super-resolution molecular probes (SRMPs) are essential tools for visualizing drug dynamics within cells, transcending the resolution limits of conventional microscopy. In this review, we provide an overview of the principles and design strategies of SRMPs, emphasizing their role in accurately tracking drug molecules. By illuminating the intricate processes of drug distribution, diffusion, uptake, and metabolism at a subcellular and molecular level, SRMPs offer crucial insights into therapeutic interventions. Additionally, we explore the practical applications of super-resolution imaging in disease treatment, highlighting the significance of SRMPs in advancing our understanding of drug action. Finally, we discuss future perspectives, envisioning potential advancements and innovations in this field. Overall, this review serves to inform and practitioners about the utility of SRMPs in driving innovation and progress in pharmacology, providing valuable insights for drug development and optimization.

Mitochondria-Targeting Metallodrugs for Cancer Therapy: Perspectives from Cell Death Modes.

Mitochondria, recognized as the cellular powerhouses, are indispensable organelles responsible for crucial cellular processes, such as energy metabolism, material synthesis, and signaling transduction. Their intricate involvement in a broad spectrum of diseases, particularly cancer, has propelled the exploration of mitochondria-targeting treatment as a promising strategy for cancer therapy. Since the groundbreaking discovery of cisplatin, the trajectory of research on the development of metal complexes have been marked by continuous advancement, giving rise to a diverse array of metallodrugs characterized by variations in ligand types, metal center properties, and oxidation states. By specifically targeting mitochondria, these metallodrugs exhibit the remarkable ability to elicit various programmed cell death pathways, encompassing apoptosis, autophagy, and ferroptosis. This review primarily focuses on recent developments in transition metal-based mitochondria-targeting agents, offering a comprehensive exploration of their capacity to induce distinct cell death modes. The aim is not only to disseminate knowledge but also to stimulate an active field of research toward new clinical applications and novel anticancer mechanisms.

Iridium(III)-Based PD-L1 Agonist Regulates p62 and ATF3 for Enhanced Cancer Immunotherapy.

Anti-PD-L1 immunotherapy, a new lung cancer treatment, is limited to a few patients due to low PD-L1 expression and tumor immunosuppression. To address these challenges, the upregulation of PD-L1 has the potential to elevate the response rate and efficiency of anti-PD-L1 and alleviate the immunosuppression of the tumor microenvironment. Herein, we developed a novel usnic acid-derived Iridium(III) complex, Ir-UA, that boosts PD-L1 expression and converts "cold tumors" to "hot". Subsequently, we administered Ir-UA combined with anti-PD-L1 in mice, which effectively inhibited tumor growth and promoted CD4+ and CD8+ T cell infiltration. To our knowledge, Ir-UA is the first iridium-based complex to stimulate the expression of PD-L1 by explicitly regulating its transcription factors, which not only provides a promising platform for immune checkpoint blockade but, more importantly, provides an effective treatment strategy for patients with low PD-L1 expression.

Mitochondria-targeted ruthenium complexes can be generated in vitro and in living cells to target triple-negative breast cancer cells by autophagy inhibition.

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive type of breast cancer, which owned severe resistance to platinum-based anticancer agents. Herein, we report a new metal-arene complex, Ru-TPE-PPh3, which can be synthesized in vitro and in living cells with copper catalyzed the cycloaddition reaction of Ru-azide and alkynyl (CuAAC). The complex Ru-TPE-PPh3 exhibited superior inhibition of the proliferation of TNBC MDA-MB-231 cells with an IC50 value of 4.0 µM. Ru-TPE-PPh3 could induce the over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to initiate the oxidative stress, and further damage the mitochondria both functionally and morphologically, as loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and cutting the supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the disappearance of cristae structure. Moreover, the damaged mitochondria evoked the occurrence of mitophagy with the autophagic flux blockage and cell death. The complex Ru-TPE-PPh3 also demonstrated excellent anti-proliferative activity in 3D MDA-MB-231 multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTSs), indicating the potential to inhibit solid tumors in living cells. This study not only provided a potent agent for the TNBC treatment, but also demonstrated the universality of the bioorthogonally catalyzed lethality (BCL) strategy through CuAAC reation.

Dual inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis to enhance cancer therapy.

Dual suppression of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and glycolysis can disrupt metabolic adaption of cancer cells, inhibiting energy supply and leading to successful cancer therapy. Herein, we have developed an α-tocopheryl succinate (α-TOS)-functionalized iridium(III) complex Ir2, a highly lipophilic mitochondria targeting anticancer molecule, could inhibit both oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and glycolysis, resulting in the energy blockage and cancer growth suppression. Mechanistic studies reveal that complex Ir2 induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) elevation and mitochondrial depolarization, and triggers DNA oxidative damage. These damages could evoke the cancer cell death with the mitochondrial-relevant apoptosis and autophagy. 3D tumor spheroids experiment demonstrates that Ir2 owned superior antiproliferation performance, as the potent anticancer agent in vivo. This study not only provided a new path for dual inhibition of both mitochondrial OXPHOS and glycolytic metabolisms with a novel α-TOS-functionalized metallodrug, but also further demonstrated that the mitochondrial-relevant therapy could be effective in enhancing the anticancer performance.

Cyclometalated iridium(III) complexes as anti-breast cancer and anti-metastasis agents via STAT3 inhibition.

Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and second­leading cause of cancer deaths in women. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) plays a critical role in promoting breast cancer cell proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis, and the high expression of STAT3 is related to the occurrence and poor chemotherapy sensitivity of breast cancer. Iridium(III) complexes Ir-PTS-1- 4 containing a pterostilbene-derived ligand were synthesized to inhibit the STAT3 pathway in breast cancer. Ir-PTS-4 inhibited the proliferation of breast cancer cells by suppressing the expression of phosphorylated STAT3 and STAT3-related cyclin D1, arresting cell cycle in the S-phase, inducing DNA damage and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, eventually leading to autophagic cell death. The cell metastasis and invasion were also inhibited after Ir-PTS-4 treatment. Besides, Ir-PTS-4 exhibited excellent anti-proliferation activity in 3D multicellular tumor spheroids, showing potential for the treatment of solid tumors. This work presents the rational design of metal-based anticancer agents to block the STAT3 pathway for simultaneously inhibiting breast cancer proliferation and metastasis.

Recent advances in Zn2+ imaging: From organelles to in vivo applications.

Zn2+ is involved in various physiological and pathological processes in living systems. Monitoring the dynamic spatiotemporal changes of Zn2+ levels in organelles, cells, and in vivo is of great importance for the investigation of the physiological and pathological functions of Zn2+. However, this task is quite challenging since Zn2+ in living systems is present at low concentrations and undergoes rapid dynamic changes. In this review, we summarize the design and application of fluorescent probes for Zn2+ imaging in organelles, cells, and live organisms reported over the past two years. We aim to provide inspiration for the design of novel Zn2+ probes for multi-level monitoring and deepen the understanding of Zn2+ biology.

BODIPY-Based Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Dual Mode Imaging-Guided Tumor Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapy.

Multifunctional nanoparticles integrating accurate multi-diagnosis and efficient therapy hold great prospects in tumor theranostics. However, it is still a challenging task to develop multifunctional nanoparticles for imaging-guided effective eradication of tumors. Herein, we developed a near-infrared (NIR) organic agent Aza/I-BDP by coupling 2,6-diiodo-dipyrromethene (2,6-diiodo-BODIPY) with aza-boron-dipyrromethene (Aza-BODIPY). Through encapsulating with an amphiphilic biocompatible copolymer DSPE-mPEG5000, well-distributed Aza/I-BDP nanoparticles (NPs) were developed, which exhibited high 1O2 generation, high photothermal conversion efficiency, and excellent photo-stability. Notably, coassembly of Aza/I-BDP and DSPE-mPEG5000 effectively inhibits H-aggregation of Aza/I-BDP in aqueous solution and enhances the brightness simultaneously up to 31-fold. More importantly, in vivo experiments demonstrated that Aza/I-BDP NPs might be used for NIR fluorescent and photoacoustic imaging-guided photodynamic and photothermal therapy.

Fluorescent Probes for Biological Species and Microenvironments: from Rational Design to Bioimaging Applications.

Some important biological species and microenvironments maintain a complex and delicate dynamic balance in life systems, participating in the regulation of various physiological processes and playing indispensable roles in maintaining the healthy development of living bodies. Disruption of their homeostasis in living organisms can cause various diseases and even death. Therefore, real time monitoring of these biological species and microenvironments during different physiological and pathological processes is of great significance. Fluorescent-probe-based techniques have been recognized as one of the most powerful tools for real time imaging in biological samples. In this Account, we introduce the representative works from our group in the field of fluorescent probes for biological imaging capable of detecting metal ions, small bioactive molecules, and the microenvironment. The design strategies of small molecule fluorescent probes and their applications in biological imaging will be discussed. By regulating the design strategy and mechanism (e.g., ICT, PeT, and FRET) of the electronic and spectral characteristics of the fluorescent platforms, these chemical probes show high selectivity and diverse functions, which can be used for imaging of various physiological and pathological processes. Through the exploration of the rational response mechanism and design strategy, combined with a variety of imaging techniques, such as super-resolution imaging, photoacoustic (PA) imaging, etc., we have realized multimode imaging of the important biological analytes from the subcellular level to the in vivo level, which provides powerful means to study the physiological and pathological functions of these species and microenvironments. This Account aims to offer insights and inspiration for the development of novel fluorescent probes for biological imaging, which could provide powerful tools for the study of chemical biology. Overall, we represent a series of turn-on/turn-off/ratiometric fluorescent/PA probes to visually and dynamically trace biological species and microenvironments in cells and even in vivo that seek higher resolution and depth molecular imaging to improve diagnostic methods and clarify new discoveries related to chemical biology. Our future efforts will be devoted to developing multiorganelle targeted fluorescent probes to study the mechanism of subcellular organelle interaction and employing various dual-mode probes of NIR II and PA imaging to investigate the development of related diseases and treat the related diseases at subcellular and in vivo levels.

An ER-targeted "reserve-release" fluorogen for topological quantification of reticulophagy.

The endoplasmic reticulum's (ER) dynamic nature, essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis, can be influenced by stress-induced damage, which can be assessed by examining the morphology of ER dynamics and, more locally, ER properties such as hydrophobicity, viscosity, and polarity. Although numerous ER-specific chemical probes have been developed to monitor the ER's physical and chemical parameters, the quantitative detection and super-resolution imaging of its local hydrophobicity have yet to be explored. Here, we describe a photostable ER-targeted probe with high signal-to-noise ratio for super-resolution imaging that can specifically respond to changes in ER hydrophobicity under stress based on a "reserve-release" mechanism. The probe shows an excellent ability to target ER over commercial ER dyes and can be used to track local changes of hydrophobicity by fluorescence intensity and morphology during the selective autophagy of ER (i.e., reticulophagy). By correlating the level and location of ER damage with the distribution of fluorescence intensity, we were able to assess reticulophagy at the subcellular level. Beyond that, we developed a topological analytical tool adaptable to any ER probe for detecting structural changes in ER and thus quantitatively identifying reticulophagy. The algorithm-assisted tool can also be adapted to a wide range of molecular probes and organelles. Altogether, the new probe and analytical strategy described here show promise for the quantitative detection and analysis of subtle ER damage and stress.

Super-Resolution Imaging of Mitochondrial HClO during Cell Ferroptosis Using a Near-Infrared Fluorescent Probe.

Ferroptosis is of great importance in physiological and pathological processes, which is associated with various inflammation-related diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and even cancer. Ferroptosis can cause abnormal change of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria. Hypochlorous acid (HClO) acts as a typical ROS. Therefore, it is needed to study the relationship between mitochondrial morphology and HClO changes during ferroptosis at the subcellular level. To this end, a near-infrared-excitation/emission fluorescent probe, HD-Br-1, for rapid detection of mitochondrial HClO was developed based on the specific oxidative cleavage of the N,N-dimethylthiocarbamate moiety. The fluctuation in mitochondrial HClO content and the change in mitochondrial morphology during ferroptosis were monitored in real time by super-resolution imaging. In addition, HD-Br-1 was successfully applied to monitor exogenous and endogenous mitochondrial HClO during cell ferroptosis and visualize tumor to discriminate from healthy tissues. Therefore, we believe that HD-Br-1 could provide a valuable approach for the detection of mitochondrial HClO in cancer cells as well as for understanding the ferroptosis mechanism and early diagnosis of cancers associated with ferroptosis for future research.

Light-activated mitochondrial fission through optogenetic control of mitochondria-lysosome contacts.

Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles whose fragmentation by fission is critical to their functional integrity and cellular homeostasis. Here, we develop a method via optogenetic control of mitochondria-lysosome contacts (MLCs) to induce mitochondrial fission with spatiotemporal accuracy. MLCs can be achieved by blue-light-induced association of mitochondria and lysosomes through various photoactivatable dimerizers. Real-time optogenetic induction of mitochondrial fission is tracked in living cells to measure the fission rate. The optogenetic method partially restores the mitochondrial functions of SLC25A46-/- cells, which display defects in mitochondrial fission and hyperfused mitochondria. The optogenetic MLCs system thus provides a platform for studying mitochondrial fission and treating mitochondrial diseases.

A ratiometric pH probe for acidification tracking in dysfunctional mitochondria and tumour tissue in vivo.

Cellular dysregulated pH and mitochondrial metabolism are commonly two central factors for solid tumour progression. pH regulation and long-term mitochondrial tracking provide a great opportunity for tumour treatment. pH probes with suitable pKa and satisfactory mitochondria-immobilizing character are demanded for tumour recognition and therapy. Here, we report a ratiometric fluorescent probe, CouDa, for pH imaging in mitochondria and tumour tissue. CouDa displays an obvious blue-shifted emission (about 160 nm) in alkaline environment, with a pKa around 7.4 suitable for monitoring mitochondrial pH change. NMR and MS data confirmed an addition reaction mechanism of OH- upon the positively charged conjugated structure of hemicyanine fluorophore. Mitochondrial immobilization and acidification monitoring were realized by CouDa in cells treated with a mitochondrial uncoupler. Moreover, CouDa could distinguish acidified tumour tissue in living mice. Comparing with its analogue, the pH-sensitivity and mitochondria-immobilizing property are attributed to a hydrophobic long alkyl chain on indolium N atom. This work provides an effective strategy to track nucleophilic substances in dysfunctional mitochondria.

Single Image Capture of Bioactive Ion Crosstalk within Inter-Organelle Membrane Contacts at Nanometer Resolution.

Rapid bioactive ion exchange is a form of communication that regulates a wide range of biological processes. Despite advances in super-resolution optical microscopy, visualizing ion exchange remains challenging due to the extremely fast nature of these events. Here, a "converting a dynamic event into a static image construction" (CDtSC) strategy is developed that uses the color transformation of a single dichromatic molecular probe to visualize bioactive ion inter-organelle exchange in live cells. As a proof of concept, a reactive sulfur species (RSS) is analyzed at the mitochondria-lysosome contact sites (MLCs). A non-toxic and sensitive probe based on coumarin-hemicyanine structure is designed that responds to RSS localized in both mitochondria and lysosomes while fluorescing different colors. Using this probe, RSS give-and-take at MLCs is visualized, thus providing the first evidence that RSS is involved in inter-organelle contacts and communication. Taken together, the CDtSC provides a strategy to visualize and analyze rapid inter-organelle ion exchange events in live cells at nanometer resolution.

An Endoplasmic Reticulum-Targeted Ratiometric Fluorescent Molecule Reveals Zn2+ Micro-Dynamics During Drug-Induced Organelle Ionic Disorder.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the main storage site of Zn2+, and Zn2+ plays an important role in regulating ER homeostasis. Therefore, we designed and synthesized a ratiometric fluorescent Zn2+ probe ER-Zn targeting ER stress. The probe displayed a specific Zn2+ induced blue shift at the spectral maximum values of excitation (80 nm) and emission (30 nm). The ratio imaging capability of Zn2+ under dual excitation mode can be applied not only to quantitative and reversible detection of exogenous Zn2+, but also the observation of the Zn2+ level change under ER stress, elucidating the different behaviors of Zn2+ release in ER stimulated by tunicamycin and thapsigargin. Additionally, the NIR imaging capability of ER-Zn provides an important basis for further research on animal models and is expected to realize the visualization and treatment of ER stress-related diseases through the regulation of ER stress by Zn2+. We envision that this probe can be applied to screen drugs for diseases related to ER stress regulation.

Platinum-Based Two-Photon Photosensitizer Responsive to NIR Light in Tumor Hypoxia Microenvironment.

Platinum-based photosensitizers are promising anticancer agents in photodynamic therapy. The cytotoxic effects primarily arise from the production of singlet oxygen and platination of DNA. However, their efficacy is limited by drug resistance and hypoxic tumor microenvironment. A naphthalimide-modified cyclometalated platinum(II) complex PtPAN [PA = N-(2-(diethylamino)ethyl)picolinamide, N = N-(2'-ethylhexyl)-4-ethynyl-1,8-naphthalimide] is designed to conquer these problems. PtPAN generates ROS efficiently under both normoxia and hypoxia. It does not interact with DNA and shows low cytotoxicity in the dark, while it kills tumor cells via ROS under near-infrared light irradiation; moreover, it inhibits tumor growth in mice at a low light dose with negligible side effects. PtPAN is the first reported platinum-based photosensitizer that is unreactive to DNA in the dark but highly cytotoxic upon near-infrared (NIR) irradiation for oxygen-independent photodynamic therapy. Owing to its two-photon excitation property (λ = 825 nm), PtPAN may be suitable for the treatment of deep solid tumors.

Optical properties of natural small molecules and their applications in imaging and nanomedicine.

Natural small molecules derived from plants have fascinated scientists for centuries due to their practical applications in various fields, especially in nanomedicine. Some of the natural molecules were found to show intrinsic optical features such as fluorescence emission and photosensitization, which could be beneficial to provide spatial temporal information and help tracking the drugs in biological systems. Much efforts have been devoted to the investigation of optical properties and practical applications of natural molecules. In this review, optical properties of natural small molecules and their applications in fluorescence imaging, and theranostics will be summarized. First, we will introduce natural small molecules with different fluorescence emission, ranging from blue to near infrared emission. Second, imaging applications in biological samples will be covered. Third, we will discuss the applications of theranostic nanomedicines or drug delivering systems containing fluorescent natural molecules acting as imaging agents or photosensitizers. Finally, future perspectives in this field will be discussed.

Rational construction of a reversible arylazo-based NIR probe for cycling hypoxia imaging in vivo.

Reversible NIR luminescent probes with negligible photocytotoxicity are required for long-term tracking of cycling hypoxia in vivo. However, almost all of the reported organic fluorescent hypoxia probes reported until now were irreversible. Here we report a reversible arylazo-conjugated fluorescent probe (HDSF) for cycling hypoxia imaging. HDSF displays an off-on fluorescence switch at 705 nm in normoxia-hypoxia cycles. Mass spectroscopic and theoretical studies confirm that the reversible sensing behavior is attributed to the two electron-withdrawing trifluoromethyl groups, which stabilizes the reduction intermediate phenylhydrazine and blocks the further reductive decomposition. Cycling hypoxia monitoring in cells and zebrafish embryos is realized by HDSF using confocal imaging. Moreover, hypoxic solid tumors are visualized and the ischemia-reperfusion process in mice is monitored in real-time. This work provides an effective strategy to construct organic fluorescent probes for cycling hypoxia imaging and paves the way for the study of cycling hypoxia biology.

Ferroptosis Photoinduced by New Cyclometalated Iridium(III) Complexes and Its Synergism with Apoptosis in Tumor Cell Inhibition.

Limited therapeutic efficacy to hypoxic and refractory solid tumors has hindered the practical application of photodynamic therapy (PDT). Two new benzothiophenylisoquinoline (btiq)-derived cyclometalated IrIII complexes, IrL1 and MitoIrL2, were constructed as potent photosensitizers, with the latter being designed for mitochondria accumulation. Both complexes demonstrated a type I PDT process and caused photoinduced ferroptosis in tumor cells under hypoxia. This ferroptosis featured lipid peroxide accumulation, mitochondria shrinkage, down-regulation of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), and ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1)-inhibited cell death. Upon photoirradiation under hypoxia, mitochondria targeting MitoIrL2 caused mitochondria membrane potential (MMP) collapse, ATP production suppression, and induced cell apoptosis. The synergetic effect of ferroptosis and apoptosis causes MitoIrL2 to outperform IrL1 in inhibiting the growth of MCF-7, PANC-1, MDA-MB-231 cells and multicellular spheroids. This study demonstrates the first example of ferroptosis induced by photosensitizing IrIII complexes. Moreover, the synergism of ferroptosis and apoptosis provides a promising approach for combating hypoxic solid tumors through type I PDT processes.

Simultaneous Zn2+ tracking in multiple organelles using super-resolution morphology-correlated organelle identification in living cells.

Zn2+ plays important roles in metabolism and signaling regulation. Subcellular Zn2+ compartmentalization is essential for organelle functions and cell biology, but there is currently no method to determine Zn2+ signaling relationships among more than two different organelles with one probe. Here, we report simultaneous Zn2+ tracking in multiple organelles (Zn-STIMO), a method that uses structured illumination microscopy (SIM) and a single Zn2+ fluorescent probe, allowing super-resolution morphology-correlated organelle identification in living cells. To guarantee SIM imaging quality for organelle identification, we develop a new turn-on Zn2+ fluorescent probe, NapBu-BPEA, by regulating the lipophilicity of naphthalimide-derived Zn2+ probes to make it accumulate in multiple organelles except the nucleus. Zn-STIMO with this probe shows that CCCP-induced mitophagy in HeLa cells is associated with labile Zn2+ enhancement. Therefore, direct organelle identification supported by SIM imaging makes Zn-STIMO a reliable method to determine labile Zn2+ dynamics in various organelles with one probe. Finally, SIM imaging of pluripotent stem cell-derived organoids with NapBu-BPEA demonstrates the potential of super-resolution morphology-correlated organelle identification to track biospecies and events in specific organelles within organoids.