Optimizing biomass estimates of savanna woodland at different spatial scales in the Brazilian Cerrado: Re-evaluating allometric equations and environmental influences.

Cerrado is the second largest biome in South America and accounted for the second largest contribution to carbon emissions in Brazil for the last 10 years, mainly due to land-use changes. It comprises approximately 2 million km2 and is divided into 22 ecoregions, based on environmental conditions and vegetation. The most dominant vegetation type is cerrado sensu stricto (cerrado ss), a savanna woodland. Quantifying variation of biomass density of this vegetation is crucial for climate change mitigation policies. Integrating remote sensing data with adequate allometric equations and field-based data sets can provide large-scale estimates of biomass. We developed individual-tree aboveground biomass (AGB) allometric models to compare different regression techniques and explanatory variables. We applied the model with the strongest fit to a comprehensive ground-based data set (77 sites, 893 plots, and 95,484 trees) to describe AGB density variation of cerrado ss. We also investigated the influence of physiographic and climatological variables on AGB density; this analysis was restricted to 68 sites because eight sites could not be classified into a specific ecoregion, and one site had no soil texture data. In addition, we developed two models to estimate plot AGB density based on plot basal area. Our data show that for individual-tree AGB models a) log-log linear models provided better estimates than nonlinear power models; b) including species as a random effect improved model fit; c) diameter at 30 cm above ground was a reliable predictor for individual-tree AGB, and although height significantly improved model fit, species wood density did not. Mean tree AGB density in cerrado ss was 22.9 tons ha-1 (95% confidence interval = ± 2.2) and varied widely between ecoregions (8.8 to 42.2 tons ha-1), within ecoregions (e.g. 4.8 to 39.5 tons ha-1), and even within sites (24.3 to 69.9 tons ha-1). Biomass density tended to be higher in sites close to the Amazon. Ecoregion explained 42% of biomass variation between the 68 sites (P < 0.01) and shows strong potential as a parameter for classifying regional biomass variation in the Cerrado.

Savanna vegetation-fire-climate relationships differ among continents.

Ecologists have long sought to understand the factors controlling the structure of savanna vegetation. Using data from 2154 sites in savannas across Africa, Australia, and South America, we found that increasing moisture availability drives increases in fire and tree basal area, whereas fire reduces tree basal area. However, among continents, the magnitude of these effects varied substantially, so that a single model cannot adequately represent savanna woody biomass across these regions. Historical and environmental differences drive the regional variation in the functional relationships between woody vegetation, fire, and climate. These same differences will determine the regional responses of vegetation to future climates, with implications for global carbon stocks.

Aplicação da diversidade alfa e beta para definição de áreas prioritárias para conservação: uma análise das florestas deciduais sobre afloramentos calcários no Vale do Paranã, Goiás / Use of alpha and beta diversity as a base to select priority areas for conservation: an analysis of the dry forests on limestone outcrops in Paranã Valley, Goiás state, Brazil

A organização das comunidades e suas afinidades florísticas podem ser analisadas por parâmetros de diversidade e servir como base para a seleção de áreas prioritárias para conservação. No Vale do Paranã, Nordeste de Goiás, as Florestas Estacionais Deciduais sobre afloramento calcário ocorrem intercaladas com vegetação de cerrado e são áreas preferenciais para agropecuária e mineração. Neste trabalho foram analisadas as diversidades alfa (índice de diversidade de Shannon) e beta (coeficientes de similaridade de Sørensen e Czekanowski) das comunidades arbóreas de seis fragmentos de Floresta Estacional Decidual sobre afloramentos calcários, para auxiliar na definição de áreas prioritárias para conservação. A partir das análises foram selecionados três dos seis fragmentos, cujos critérios para sua seleção foram: (1) Fazenda. Nica ­ Guarani que apresentou os maiores valores de diversidade alfa e riqueza e densidade de espécies ameaçadas; (2) Fazenda. Forquilha ­ Monte Alegre, com elevados valores de diversidade alfa e beta (dissimilaridade florística); e (3) Fazenda São José ­ São Domingos, com os maiores valores de diversidade beta, sendo o mais dissimilar floristicamente de todos os demais. O método empregado é promissor na definição de áreas prioritárias para conservação, sendo capaz de representar bem as diferenciações florísticas e estruturais de uma mesma fisionomia no espaço geográfico.

The diversity parameters used to analyze community organization and floristics relationships can be used as a base to select priority areas for conservation. At the Paranã valley in northeastern Goiás State, Central Brazil, the seasonally dry tropical forests growing on limestone outcrops form a mosaic with the cerrado vegetation being preferential for conversion to cattle ranging and mining. Alpha (Shannon diversity index) and beta (Sørensen and Czekanowski similarity coefficients) diversity were analyzed for the tree layer of six fragments of dry forests on limestone outcrops aiming the definition of priority areas for conservation. Based on the results, three of the six fragments analyzed were selected: (1) Nica farm ­ Guarani (GUA) which showed the highest values of alpha and diversity plus density of threatened vegetation. (2), Forquilha farm ­ Monte Alegre (MAL) with high values of alpha and beta diversity and (3) São José farm ­ São Domingos (SD_SJ) with the highest beta diversity, therefore, the most dissimilar. This method detected well the variations in floristics and structure of a physiognomy along a geographical gradient and seems promising for the definition of priority areas for conservation.

Desenvolvimento inicial de Dipteryx alata Vogel e Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão em plantio de enriquecimento de uma floresta estacional semidecídua secundária / Initial development of Dipteryx alata Vogel and Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão in enrichment planting in a semi-deciduous secondary forest

Nesse estudo avaliou-se o desenvolvimento inicial de Dipteryx alata e Myracrodruon urundeuva plantadas em sistema de enriquecimento de floresta estacional semidecídua secundária, seguindo um gradiente ambiental de umidade, em direção a áreas de cerrado. As avaliações da sobrevivência e do crescimento em altura total e diâmetro do coleto foram feitas 12 meses após o plantio e foram constatados 10% de mortalidade para M. urundeuva e 45% para D. alata. Vinte e cinco meses após o replantio, a mortalidade foi de 15% para ambas as espécies. Não houve associação entre mortalidade das espécies e gradiente ambiental (χ²) e também não foram encontradas diferenças estatísticas nos incrementos diamétricos entre as espécies (ANOVA). O crescimento médio em diâmetro de Myracrodruon urundeuva e D. alata foi de 0,96 e 0,52 mm.ano-1, respectivamente. O crescimento médio em altura foi de 9,6 e 4,0 cm.ano-¹ em M. urundeuva e D. alata, respectivamente, diferentes estatisticamente. O menor crescimento em altura de D. alata em relação a M. urundeuva não deve ser utilizado para julgar a adaptação dessa espécie ao ambiente, podendo estar relacionado a diferentes padrões de crescimento, estratégias de adaptação ou diferentes necessidades ecológicas, demonstrando diferenças quanto à eficiência no uso dos recursos disponíveis. Este estudo destacou o potencial dessas espécies para compor sistemas de enriquecimento de capoeiras.

Initial development of Dipteryx alata Vogel and Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão planting in enrichment in a semideciduous secondary forest. This study evaluated the initial development of Dipteryx alata and Myracrodruon urundeuva planted in enrichment system in a secondary semi-deciduous seasonal forest along an environmental gradient. The survival and growth in height and diameter were made 12 months after planting. There was 10% mortality for M. urundeuva and 45% for D. alata. Twenty-five months after replanting, the mortality was 15% for both species. There was no association between mortality of the species and environmental gradient (²) and also there were no statistical differences in diameter increment between species (ANOVA). Myracrodruon urundeuva and D. alata grew on average 0.96 and 0.52 mm.yr-1, respectively. The average growth in height was 9.6 and 4.0 cm.yr-¹ for M. urundeuva and D. alata, respectively, statistically different. The smaller growth in height of D. alata versus M. urundeuva should not be used determine the adaptation to the environment and may be linked to different patterns of growth, adaptation strategies, or different ecological needs, showing differences in efficiency in the use of available resources. This study highlighted the potential use of these species in enrichment systems.

Environmental determinants for natural regeneration of gallery forest at the Cerrado/Amazonia boundaries in Brazil / Determinantes ambientais para regeneração natural de mata de galeria na transição Cerrado/Amazônia no Brasil

Natural regeneration and structure and their relationship to environmental variables were studied in three sections of a gallery forest, in Eastern Mato Grosso, Brazil (14º43'S and 52º21'W). The assumption was that natural regeneration is constrained by environmental determinants at all stages of development of the tree community. The objective was to analyse the forest structure and to verify the relationship between species distribution and abundance at different stages of regeneration and environmental variables. In each section, 47 contiguous (10x10m) permanent plots were established to sample trees (gbh≥15cm), following a systematic design. Seedlings (0.01 to 1m height), saplings (1.01 to 2m) and poles (from 2.01m height to gbh<15cm) were sampled in sub-plots of 1x1m, 2x2m and 5x5m, respectively. In each plot, soil properties, gaps projection, bamboos, rocky cover, declivity and depth of ground watertable were determined. The relationships between the environmental variables with trees and seedling communities were assessed by canonical correspondence analysis. In spite of the sections being near to each other, they presented large differences in floristics, structure and site conditions. The forest soil presented a low cation exchange capacity and a high level of Al saturation. The occurrence of bamboos and gaps and the depth of ground watertable limited the occurrence of poles and trees. The high degree of structural heterogeneity for each regeneration category was related primarily to a humidity gradient; but soil fertility (Ca+Mg) was also a determinant of seedling and sapling communities.

Foi estudada a regeneração natural e a estrutura de três seções de uma floresta de galeria no leste de Mato Grosso, Brasil (14º43'S e 52º21'W). O objetivo foi analisar a estrutura da floresta e verificar a relação entre a distribuição e abundância das espécies nos diferentes estágios de regeneração e entre as variáveis ambientais. Em cada seção de floresta foram estabelecidas, sistematicamente, 47 parcelas (10x10m) contíguas e permanentes para amostrar as árvores (CAP≥15cm). As plântulas jovens (0,01 a 1m de altura), as plântulas maiores (1,01 a 2m) e as arvoretas (de 2,01m de altura a CAP≥15cm) foram amostradas em sub-parcelas de 1x1m, 2x2m e 5x5m, respectivamente. Para cada parcela foram determinadas as propriedades do solo, projeção das clareiras, cobertura de bambus, rochosidade, declividade e profundidade do lençol freático. A relação das variáveis ambientais com as árvores e comunidades de plântulas e arvoretas foi determinada a partir de uma análise de correspondência canônica. Apesar das seções de floresta serem próximas entre si, apresentaram diferenças importantes em relação à composição florística, estrutura e variáveis ambientais. Os solos apresentaram reduzida capacidade de troca catiônica e elevados níveis de saturação de alumínio. A ocorrência de bambus e clareiras e a profundidade do lençol freático limitam a ocorrência de arvoretas e árvores. A elevada heterogeneidade estrutural em cada categoria de regeneração esteve relacionada principalmente a um gradiente de umidade, mas a fertilidade do solo (Ca+Mg) também foi determinante nas diferentes comunidades de plântulas.

Long-distance dispersal helps germinating mahogany seedlings escape defoliation by a specialist caterpillar.

Herbivores and pathogens with acute host specificity may promote high tree diversity in tropical forests by causing distance- and density-dependent mortality of seedlings, but evidence is scarce. Although Lepidoptera larvae are the most abundant and host-specific guild of herbivores in these forests, their impact upon seedling distributions remains largely unknown. A firm test of the mechanism underpinning the Janzen-Connell hypothesis is difficult, even for a single tree species, because it requires more than just manipulating seeds and seedlings and recording their fates. Experimental tests require: (1) an insect herbivore that is identified and highly specialised, (2) linkage to an in situ measure (or prevention) of herbivory, and (3) evaluation and confirmation among many conspecific adult trees across years. Here we present experimental evidence for a spatially explicit interaction between newly germinating seedlings of a Neotropical emergent tree, big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla, Meliaceae), and caterpillars of a noctuid moth (Steniscadia poliophaea). In the understory of a southeastern Amazon forest, the proportion of attacks, leaf area lost, and seedling mortality due to this specialised herbivore peaked near Swietenia trees, but declined significantly with increasing distance from mature fruiting trees, as predicted by the Janzen-Connell hypothesis. We conclude that long-distance dispersal events (>50 m) provided an early survival advantage for Swietenia seedlings, and propose that the role of larval Lepidoptera as Janzen-Connell vectors may be underappreciated in tropical forests.

Florística e estrutura de fragmento florestal em área de transição na Amazônia Matogrossense no município de Sinop

Fragmentation is intense in Amazon forest especially in Mato Grosso State. Loss of original vegetation is expected along with a transitional flora in such fragments, having elements of rainforest and Cerrado vegetation with abundant pioneer species. Goal of this work was to evaluate the floristic composition and phytosociology of the arboreal vegetation of an urban forest fragment in Sinop, Mato Grosso. It was intended to confirm its transitional characteristic and to detect possible perturbation due to fragmentation. The trial had 25 (20 x 20 m) permanent plots, where all individuals over 15 cm gbh were assessed. A total of 36 families, 81 genera and 113 species were found in the area with 1555 ind.ha-1 plant density. The largest family was Leguminosae with 14 species. The most frequent species were: Cecropia sciadophylla, Cecropia sp., Bellucia grossularioides e Vismia guianensis. Shannon (H') diversity index reached 3.55 nats.ind-1, considered high for transitional forests. Pielou's evenness was 0.75, suggesting high dominance of few species. In a decreasing ranking of VI (%) the most frequent species were: Cecropia sp., Bellucia grossularioides, Qualea ingens, Cecropia sciadophylla, Vismia guianensis, Miconia prasina, Trattinickia burserifolia, Unonopsis guatterioides and Schefflera vinosa. The Amazon and Cerrado mixed floristic composition confirms the fragment as transitional and the abundance of pioneer species suggests disturbances caused by fragmentation.

A fragmentação do ambiente é intensa na amazônia matogrossense e é esperado como consequência, além do desaparecimento da vegetação original, que a flora dos fragmentos seja transicional, com elementos de floresta amazônica e de cerrado e que já apresentem elevada presença de famílias e espécies pioneiras. Este trabalho objetivou avaliar a composição florística e obter parâmetros fitossociológicos de componentes arbóreos presentes em um fragmento urbano no município de Sinop, Mato Grosso com vistas a confirmar sua classificação como vegetação de transição e detectar indícios de perturbação pela fragmentação. A vegetação foi amostrada pela instalação de 25 parcelas permanentes de 20 x 20m, onde foram amostrados os indivíduos com CAP igual ou superior a 15 cm à altura de 1,30m do solo. A densidade total da área foi de 1555 ind./ha, distribuídos em 37 famílias botânicas, 81 gêneros e 113 espécies. A família mais representativa foi Leguminosae com 14 espécies. As espécies que mais contribuíram em abundância e apresentaram maior frequência foram: Cecropia sciadophylla, Cecropia sp., Bellucia grossularioides e Vismia guianensis. O índice de Shannon (H') foi de 3,55, considerado alto para uma floresta de transição. A equabilidade de Pielou foi de 0,75, sugerindo grande dominância de poucas espécies. As espécies que mais se destacaram em ordem decrescente de VI (%) foram Cecropia sp., Bellucia grossularioides, Qualea ingens, Cecropia sciadophylla, Vismia guianensis, Miconia prasina, Trattinickia burserifolia, Unonopsis guatterioides e Schefflera vinosa. O remanescente apresenta uma flora mista amazônica e de cerrado, confirmando ser ecótono e a abundância de pioneiras sugere distúrbios. Esta floresta protege espécies madeireiras e frutíferas com grande potencial para uso múltiplo, podendo ser um espaço educativo com vistas a conservação e manejo sustentável.

Florística do estrato herbáceo-subarbustivo de um campo limpo úmido em Brasília, Brasil / Floristic of the herbaceous and subshrub layer of a Moist Grassland in Brasília, Brazil

A riqueza florística do estrato herbáceo-arbustivo de campo limpo úmido, uma vegetação campestre do bioma Cerrado, é pouco conhecida, embora as ervas e subarbustos sejam o maior componente na vegetação de Cerrado. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo caracterizar a riqueza florística da camada herbáceo-subarbustiva de um campo limpo úmido, com aproximadamente 16 ha, localizado na Fazenda Água Limpa (FAL), Brasília, DF (15º 56' a 15º 59' S e 47º 55' a 47º 58' W), além de comparar a sua flora herbáceo-arbustiva com a de outras áreas do bioma Cerrado no Brasil central e sudeste. Material botânico fértil foi coletado quinzenalmente, de setembro de 1999 a fevereiro de 2001, ao longo de trilhas distribuídas de modo a percorrer a maior extensão da área possível. Foram registradas 197 espécies, distribuídas em 105 gêneros e 41 famílias, tendo sido provavelmente descoberta uma nova espécie de Syngonanthus (Eriocaulaceae). As oito famílias com o maior número de espécie foram Poaceae (39 espécies); Cyperaceae (24); Asteraceae (21); Polygalaceae (15); Eriocaulaceae (12); Xyridaceae e Melastomataceae (8) e Fabaceae (7). A similaridade florística, medida com índice de S›rensen, entre o campo limpo úmido estudado e as outras 12 áreas de Cerrado foram baixas variando de 3,3 por cento a 37,4 por cento. As baixas similaridades entre as áreas comparadas podem estar relacionadas com as diferenças de saturação hídrica do solo ou diferenças no tamanho das áreas de Cerrado remanescentes. A ordenação separou claramente as áreas úmidas das áreas secas e sugere que a distância geográfica entre as mesmas também pode ter influenciado a heterogeneidade florística no componente herbáceo-subarbustivo.

Little is known on the floristic richness of the herb-subshrub layer of the moist grassland, a grassy field vegetation within the Cerrado biome, although herbs and subshrubs are the major components of the Cerrado flora. The objective of this work was to characterize the floristic richness of the herb-subshrub layer of a moist grassland, in 16 ha in Fazenda Água Limpa (FAL), Brasília, DF (15º 56' to 15º 59' S and 47º 55' to 47º 58' W) and to compare with it with other Savana-like vegetations in central and southeastern Brazil. Vouchers were collected at quarterly intervals, from September 1999 to February 2001 along transects established in order to cover most of the study-area. A total of 197 species in 105 genera and 41 families was recorded. A species of Syngonanthus (Eriocaulaceae), probably new to science was found. The richest families were Poaceae (39 species); Cyperaceae (24); Asteraceae (21); Polygalaceae (15); Eriocaulaceae (12); Xyridaceae and Melastomataceae (8); and Fabaceae (7). Similarities between this moist grassland and 12 other sites, measured with the Sorensen index, were low, varying from 3.3 percent to 37.4 percent. The low similarities between the compared sites may be related to the differences in soil water saturation or differences in the size of the area covered by grasslands in each site. The ordination analysis readily distinguished dry from humid sites and suggested that geographic distance between the sites can also affect floristic heterogeneity in the herbaceous-subshrub component.

An experimental test of density- and distant-dependent recruitment of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) in southeastern Amazonia.

According to the Janzen-Connell model, high mortality of seeds and seedlings in proximity to conspecific adults can help maintain species diversity in tropical forests. Using a natural population of big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King), we tested the model's mechanism by examining seed predation and juvenile recruitment in the forest understory and in treefall gaps in the vicinity of both isolated and clumped adults. We used tethered seeds placed in three types of exclosure plots: (1) complete access to seeds, (2) semi-access (access by small-sized seed predators) and (3) no access (all mammals excluded). Exclosure treatments were applied within the understory (both near and far from adults) and in gaps at eight fruiting adults in the late dry season (2001) and scored ten months later. Significantly more seeds were removed in canopy gaps near clumped adults than at isolated adults; otherwise, none of the treatment factors significantly influenced seed predation. In contrast, understory juvenile recruitment was significantly enhanced by distance from adults and was twice as high at isolated than clumped adults, providing novel support for the Janzen-Connell mechanism. No-access exclosures protected significantly more seeds than semi- and full-access exclosures, implicating small mammals in seed losses. Across the eight trees, juvenile recruitment in the no-access exclosures decreased significantly with conspecific adult densities, implicating non-mammalian density-responsive factor(s) in mortality following germination; likely a known specialist invertebrate herbivore. When all treatments were combined, conspecific adult basal area and total DBH explained 72 and 90% of variation in overall juvenile recruitment, respectively. Collectively, these results indicate that Janzen-Connell effects can operate in S. macrophylla, especially during the seed-to-seedling transition, and will likely reduce recruitment in areas of high conspecific densities. They also suggest that further research into the causes of density-dependence in tropical trees should investigate mortality agents following germination.