Association between Heavy Metals, Metalloids and Metabolic Syndrome: New Insights and Approaches.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is an important public health issue that affects millions of people around the world and is growing to pandemic-like proportions. This syndrome is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a pathologic condition characterized by abdominal obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. Moreover, the etiology of MetS is multifactorial, involving many environmental factors, including toxicant exposures. Several studies have associated MetS with heavy metals exposure, which is the focus of this review. Environmental and/or occupational exposure to heavy metals are a major risk, contributing to the development of chronic diseases. Of particular note, toxic metals such as mercury, lead, and cadmium may contribute to the development of MetS by altering oxidative stress, IL-6 signaling, apoptosis, altered lipoprotein metabolism, fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, and other mechanisms. In this review, we discuss the known and potential roles of heavy metals in MetS etiology as well as potential targeted pathways that are associated with MetS. Furthermore, we describe how new approaches involving proteomic and transcriptome analysis, as well as bioinformatic tools, may help bring about an understanding of the involvement of heavy metals and metalloids in MetS.

Amyloid Beta Peptide-Mediated Alterations in Mitochondrial Dynamics and its Implications for Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is considered the most frequent neurodegenerative disorder worldwide, compromising cognitive function in patients, with an average incidence of 1-3% in the open population. Protein aggregation into amyloidogenic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, as well as neurodegeneration in the hippocampal and cortical areas, represent the neuropathological hallmarks of this disorder. Mechanisms involved in neurodegeneration include protein misfolding, augmented apoptosis, disrupted molecular signaling pathways and axonal transport, oxidative stress, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction, among others. It is precisely through a disrupted energy metabolism that neural cells trigger toxic mechanisms leading to cell death. In this regard, the study of mitochondrial dynamics constitutes a relevant topic to decipher the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in neurological disorders, especially when considering that amyloid-beta peptides can target mitochondria. Specifically, the amyloid beta (Aß) peptide, known to accumulate in the brain of AD patients, has been shown to disrupt overall mitochondrial metabolism by impairing energy production, mitochondrial redox activity, and calcium homeostasis, thus highlighting its key role in the AD pathogenesis. In this work, we review and discuss recent evidence supporting the concept that mitochondrial dysfunction mediated by amyloid peptides contributes to the development of AD.

Mercury and cancer: Where are we now after two decades of research?

The present study aims to review epidemiological and experimental toxicology studies published over the last two decades linking mercury (Hg) exposure and carcinogenesis, with a special emphasis on the potential underlying mechanisms. While some epidemiological studies have observed a strong association between environmental/occupational Hg exposure levels, measured in blood, toenail, and hair, and cancer risk and mortality, others failed to reveal any association. In experimental models, high-dose Hg exposure has been linked with cytotoxicity, whereas low-dose exposure was posited to induce proliferative responses in both normal and cancerous cells by interference with estrogen receptor, ERK1/2, JNK, NADPH-oxidase and, potentially, Nrf2 signaling. Combined with reduced apoptosis and pro-survival signaling upon low-dose Hg exposure, accumulation of DNA lesions in cells may predispose to an increased risk of malignant transformation. In addition, the pro-oxidant activity of Hg species may induce oxidative DNA modifications and inhibits DNA repair mechanisms. Furthermore, epigenetic effects of Hg exposure seem to contribute to the carcinogenic activity, although the particular mechanisms have yet to be characterized. Therefore, even after 20 years of research, one cannot consider Hg as a non-carcinogenic agent, whereas specific mechanisms of Hg-induced toxicity may promote carcinogenic risk.

Alpha-Mangostin Alleviates the Short-term 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Neurotoxicity and Oxidative Damage in Rat Cortical Slices and in Caenorhabditis elegans.

The development, at the experimental level, of therapeutic strategies based on natural products to attenuate neurological alterations in degenerative disorders has gained attention. Antioxidant molecules exhibit both anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Alpha-mangostin (α-Man) is a natural xanthonoid isolated from the mangosteen tree with demonstrated antioxidant and cytoprotective properties. In this study, we investigated the antioxidant and protective properties of α-Man, both ex vivo and in vivo. We assessed the mitochondrial reductant capacity and oxidative damage to lipids in rat cortical slices, and several endpoints characteristic of physiological stress in the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), upon exposure to the parkinsonian neurotoxin, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). In rat cortical slices, α-Man (25 and 50 µM) reduced the 6-OHDA (100 µM)-induced oxidative damage to lipid levels, but failed to reverse loss in cell viability. In wild-type (N2) C. elegans, α-Man (5-100 µM) protected against 6-OHDA (25 mM)-induced decrease in survival when administered either as pre- or post-treatment. Protective effects of α-Man were also observed on survival in the VC1772 strain (skn-1 KO-) exposed to 6-OHDA, though the extent of the protection was lesser than in the wild-type N2 strain. However, α-Man (5-50 µM) failed to attenuate the 6-OHDA-induced motor alterations in the N2 strain. The loss of lifespan induced by 6-OHDA in the N2 strain was fully reversed by high concentrations of α-Man. In addition, while 6-OHDA decreased the expression of glutathione S-transferase in the CL2166 C. elegans strain, α-Man preserved and stimulated the expression of this protein. α-Man (25 µM) also prevented 6-OHDA-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the BZ555 C. elegans strain. Altogether, our novel results suggest that α-Man affords partial protection against several, but not all, short-term toxic effects induced by 6-OHDA in cortical slices and in a skn-1-dependent manner in C. elegans.

Ghrelin attenuates methylmercury-induced oxidative stress in neuronal cells.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a global pollutant, which can cause damage to the central nervous system at both high-acute and chronic-low exposures, especially in vulnerable populations, such as children and pregnant women. Nowadays, acute-high poisoning is rare. However, chronic exposure to low MeHg concentrations via fish consumption remains a health concern. Current therapeutic strategies for MeHg poisoning are based on the use of chelators. However, these therapies have limited efficacy. Ghrelin is a gut hormone with an important role in regulating physiologic processes. It has been reported that ghrelin plays a protective role against the toxicity of several xenobiotics. Here, we explored the role of ghrelin as a putative protector against MeHg-induced oxidative stress. Our data show that ghrelin was able to ameliorate MeHg-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in primary neuronal hypothalamic and hippocampal cultures. An analogous effect was observed in mouse hypothalamic neuronal GT 1-7 cells. Using this model, our novel findings show that antioxidant protection of ghrelin against MeHg is mediated by glutathione upregulation and induction of the NRF2/NQO1 pathway.

BXD Recombinant Inbred Mice as a Model to Study Neurotoxicity.

BXD recombinant inbred (RI) lines represent a genetic reference population derived from a cross between C57BL/6J mice (B6) and DBA/2J mice (D2), which through meiotic recombination events possesses recombinant chromosomes containing B6 or D2 haplotype segments. The quantitative trait loci (QTLs) are the locations of segregating genetic polymorphisms and are fundamental to understanding genetic diversity in human disease susceptibility and severity. QTL mapping represents the typical approach for identifying naturally occurring polymorphisms that influence complex phenotypes. In this process, genotypic values at markers of known genomic locations are associated with phenotypic values measured in a segregating population. Indeed, BXD RI strains provide a powerful tool to study neurotoxicity induced by different substances. In this review, we describe the use of BXD RI lines to understand the underlying mechanisms of neurotoxicity in response to ethanol and cocaine, as well as metals and pesticide exposures.

Adipotropic effects of heavy metals and their potential role in obesity.

Epidemiological studies demonstrated an association between heavy metal exposure and the incidence of obesity and metabolic syndrome. However, the particular effects of metal toxicity on adipose tissue functioning are unclear. Therefore, recent findings of direct influence of heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, and lead) and metalloid (arsenic) on adipose tissue physiology are discussed while considering existing gaps and contradictions. Here, we provide a literature review addressing adipose tissue as a potential target of heavy metal toxicity. Experimental in vivo studies demonstrated a significant influence of mercury, cadmium, lead, and arsenic exposure on body adiposity. In turn, in vitro experiments revealed both up- and downregulation of adipogenesis associated with aberrant expression of key adipogenic pathways, namely CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). Comparison of the existing studies on the basis of dose and route of exposure demonstrated that the effects of heavy metal exposure on adipose tissue may be dose-dependent, varying from increased adipogenesis at low-dose exposure to inhibition of adipose tissue differentiation at higher doses. However, direct dose-response data are available in a single study only for arsenic. Nonetheless, both types of these effects, irrespective of their directionality, contribute significantly to metabolic disturbances due to dysregulated adipogenesis. Particularly, inhibition of adipocyte differentiation is known to reduce lipid-storage capacity of adipose tissue, leading to ectopic lipid accumulation. In contrast, metal-associated stimulation of adipogenesis may result in increased adipose tissue accumulation and obesity. However, further studies are required to reveal the particular dose- and species-dependent effects of heavy metal exposure on adipogenesis and adipose tissue functioning.

The antioxidant role of STAT3 in methylmercury-induced toxicity in mouse hypothalamic neuronal GT1-7 cell line.

Oxidative stress, impairment of antioxidant defenses, and disruption of calcium homeostasis are associated with the toxicity of methylmercury (MeHg). Yet, the relative contribution and interdependence of these effects and other molecular mechanisms that mediate MeHg-induced neurotoxicity remain uncertain. The signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is a transcription factor that regulates the expression of anti-apoptotic and cell cycle progression genes. In addition to its role in cell growth and survival, STAT3 regulates redox homeostasis and prevents oxidative stress by the modulation of nuclear genes that encode for electron transport complexes (ETC) and antioxidant enzymes. Here we tested the hypothesis that STAT3 contributes to the orchestration of the antioxidant defense response against MeHg injury. We show that MeHg (>1 µM) exposure induced STAT3 activation within 1 h and beyond in mouse hypothalamic neuronal GT1-7 cells in a concentration-and time-dependent manner. Pharmacological inhibition of STAT3 phosphorylation exacerbated MeHg-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxidant responses. Finally, treatment with the antioxidant Trolox demonstrated that MeHg-induced STAT3 activation is mediated, at least in part, by MeHg-induced ROS generation. Combined, our results demonstrated a role for the STAT3 signaling pathway as an early response to MeHg-induced oxidative stress.

Haloperidol Interactions with the dop-3 Receptor in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Haloperidol is a typical antipsychotic drug commonly used to treat a broad range of psychiatric disorders related to dysregulations in the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA). DA modulates important physiologic functions and perturbations in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and, its signaling have been associated with alterations in behavioral, molecular, and morphologic properties in C. elegans. Here, we evaluated the possible involvement of dopaminergic receptors in the onset of these alterations followed by haloperidol exposure. Haloperidol increased lifespan and decreased locomotor behavior (basal slowing response, BSR, and locomotion speed via forward speed) of the worms. Moreover, locomotion speed recovered to basal conditions upon haloperidol withdrawal. Haloperidol also decreased DA levels, but it did not alter neither dop-1, dop-2, and dop-3 gene expression, nor CEP dopaminergic neurons' morphology. These effects are likely due to haloperidol's antagonism of the D2-type DA receptor, dop-3. Furthermore, this antagonism appears to affect mechanistic pathways involved in the modulation and signaling of neurotransmitters such as octopamine, acetylcholine, and GABA, which may underlie at least in part haloperidol's effects. These pathways are conserved in vertebrates and have been implicated in a range of disorders. Our novel findings demonstrate that the dop-3 receptor plays an important role in the effects of haloperidol.

Chronic exposure to methylmercury enhances the anorexigenic effects of leptin in C57BL/6J male mice.

Several studies have demonstrated that heavy metals disrupt energy homeostasis. Leptin inhibits food intake and decreases body weight through activation of its receptor in the hypothalamus. The impact of heavy metals on leptin signaling in the hypothalamus is unclear. Here, we show that the environmental pollutant, methylmercury (MeHg), favors an anorexigenic profile in wild-type males. C57BL/6J mice were exposed to MeHg via drinking water (5 ppm) up to 30 days. Our data shows that MeHg exposure was associated with changes in leptin induced activation of Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway in the hypothalamus. In males, the activation of JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway was sustained by an increase in SOCS3 protein levels. In females, MeHg-activated STAT3 was inhibited by a concomitant increase in PTP1B. Taken together, our data suggest that MeHg enhanced leptin effects in males, favoring an anorexigenic profile in males, which notably, have been shown to be more sensitive to the neurological effects of this organometal than females. A better understanding of MeHg-induced molecular mechanism alterations in the hypothalamus advances the understanding of its neurotoxicity and provides molecular sites for novel therapies.

Chronic exposure to methylmercury disrupts ghrelin actions in C57BL/6J mice.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neurotoxic pollutant widely present in the environment. Initial symptoms of MeHg may include loss of body weight. However, the mechanisms by which MeHg induces body weight changes have yet to be fully elucidated. Body weight is regulated by multiple mechanisms. Whereas multiple peripheral peptides lead to food intake cessation, ghrelin is the only recognized peripheral hormone that stimulates food intake. It exerts its action on Neuropeptide Y/Agouti-related peptide neurons in the hypothalamus. To test if MeHg affects ghrelin signaling C57BL/6J mice (males and females) were exposed to 5 ppm MeHg via drinking water during a month. On days 15 and 30 of MeHg exposure ghrelin was administered intraperitoneally and changes in body weight and food intake were recorded. In addition, changes in ghrelin-induced signaling pathways in hypothalamus were also analyzed. Here, we show that in males, MeHg enhanced ghrelin-induced body weight gain by activating the AMP-activated Kinase (AMPK)/Uncoupled protein 2 (UCP2) signaling pathway. In contrast, in females, MeHg inhibited ghrelin-induced mTOR signaling activation and decreased Npy mRNA expression, thus mitigating the ghrelin-induced weight gain. Combined, our novel results demonstrate, for the first time, that MeHg disrupts the physiological functions of ghrelin differently in males and females.

The BXD21/TyJ recombinant inbred strain as a model for innate inflammatory response in distinct brain regions.

Oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines affect the human brain, increasing the risk for mood and cognitive disorders. Such risk might be selective to brain-specific regions. Here, we determined whether BXD recombinant inbred (RI) mice strains are more suitable than C57BL/6J mice for the understanding of the relationship between antioxidant response and inflammatory responses. We hypothesized that inflammatory responses could be independent of antioxidant response and be inherent to brain-specific regions. This hypothesis will be addressed by the analyses of mRNA expression. We explored, at 7-months-of-age, the innate activation of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and interleukin 6 (IL-6), as well as Kelch-like ECH-associating protein 1 (Keap1), nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) and glutathione peroxidase 1 (Gpx1) mRNA in both male and female BXD84/RwwJ RI, BXD21/TyJ RI and control strain (C57BL/6J mice). We report that: (1) The cerebellum is more sensitive to antioxidant response in the BXD21/TyJ RI strain; (2) The cerebellum, hippocampus and striatum show increased levels of cytokines in the BXD21/TyJ RI strain; (3) The BXD RI strain has lower brain weight relative to control strain (C57BL/6 mice). In conclusion, our novel data show the utility of the BXD21/TyJ RI strain mice in offering mechanistic insight into Nrf2's role in the inflammatory system.

Oxidative Stress in Methylmercury-Induced Cell Toxicity.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a hazardous environmental pollutant, which elicits significant toxicity in humans. The accumulation of MeHg through the daily consumption of large predatory fish poses potential health risks, and the central nervous system (CNS) is the primary target of toxicity. Despite well-described neurobehavioral effects (i.e., motor impairment), the mechanisms of MeHg-induced toxicity are not completely understood. However, several lines of evidence point out the oxidative stress as an important molecular mechanism in MeHg-induced intoxication. Indeed, MeHg is a soft electrophile that preferentially interacts with nucleophilic groups (mainly thiols and selenols) from proteins and low-molecular-weight molecules. Such interaction contributes to the occurrence of oxidative stress, which can produce damage by several interacting mechanisms, impairing the function of various molecules (i.e., proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids), potentially resulting in modulation of different cellular signal transduction pathways. This review summarizes the general aspects regarding the interaction between MeHg with regulators of the antioxidant response system that are rich in thiol and selenol groups such as glutathione (GSH), and the selenoenzymes thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) and glutathione peroxidase (Gpx). A particular attention is directed towards the role of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and the nuclear transcription factor NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in MeHg-induced redox imbalance.

Methylmercury Affects the Expression of Hypothalamic Neuropeptides That Control Body Weight in C57BL/6J Mice.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is an environmental pollutant that affects primarily the central nervous system (CNS), causing neurological alterations. An early symptom of MeHg poisoning is the loss of body weight and appetite. Moreover, the CNS has an important role in controlling energy homeostasis. It is known that in the hypothalamus nutrient and hormonal signals converge to orchestrate control of body weight and food intake. In this study, we investigated if MeHg is able to induce changes in the expression of key hypothalamic neuropeptides that regulate energy homeostasis. Thus, hypothalamic neuronal mouse cell line GT 1-7 was treated with MeHg at different concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, and 5 µM). MeHg induced the expression of the anorexigenic neuropeptide pro-omiomelanocortin (Pomc) and the orexigenic peptide Agouti-related peptide (Agrp) in a concentration-dependent manner, suggesting deregulation of mechanisms that control body weight. To confirm these in vitro observations, 8-week-old C57BL/6J mice (males and females) were exposed to MeHg in drinking water, modeling the most prevalent exposure route to this metal. After 30-day exposure, no changes in body weight were detected. However, MeHg treated males showed a significant decrease in fat depots. Moreover, MeHg affected the expression of hypothalamic neuropeptides that control food intake and body weight in a gender- and dose-dependent manner. Thus, MeHg increases Pomc mRNA only in males in a dose-dependent way, and it does not have effects on the expression of Agrp mRNA. The present study shows, for first time, that MeHg is able to induce changes in hypothalamic neuropeptides that regulate energy homeostasis, favoring an anorexigenic/catabolic profile.

Neurotoxic effect of active ingredients in sunscreen products, a contemporary review.

Sunscreen application is the main strategy used to prevent the maladies inflicted by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Despite the continuously increasing frequency of sunscreen use worldwide, the prevalence of certain sun exposure-related pathologies, mainly malignant melanoma, is also on the rise. In the past century, a variety of protective agents against UV exposure have been developed. Physical filters scatter and reflect UV rays and chemical filters absorb those rays. Alongside the evidence for increasing levels of these agents in the environment, which leads to indirect exposure of wildlife and humans, recent studies suggest a toxicological nature for some of these agents. Reviews on the role of these agents in developmental and endocrine impairments (both pathology and related mechanisms) are based on both animal and human studies, yet information regarding the potential neurotoxicity of these agents is scant. In this review, data regarding the neurotoxicity of several organic filters: octyl methoxycinnamate, benzophenone-3 and -4, 4-methylbenzylidene camphor, 3-benzylidene camphor and octocrylene, and two allowed inorganic filters: zinc oxide and titanium dioxide, is presented and discussed. Taken together, this review advocates revisiting the current safety and regulation of specific sunscreens and investing in alternative UV protection technologies.

BXD recombinant inbred strains participate in social preference, anxiety and depression behaviors along sex-differences in cytokines and tactile allodynia.

Depression and anxiety are the most common psychiatric disorders, representing a major public health concern. Dysregulation of oxidative and inflammatory systems may be associated with psychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety. Due to the need to find appropriate animal models to the understanding of such disorders, we queried whether 2 BXD recombinant inbred (RI) mice strains (BXD21/TyJ RI and BXD84/RwwJ RI mice) and C57BL/6 wild-type mice show differential performance in depression and anxiety related behaviors and biomarkers. Specifically, we assessed social preference, elevated plus maze, forced swim, and Von Frey tests at 3-4 months-of-age, as well as activation of cytokines and antioxidant mRNA levels in the cortex at 7 months-of-age. We report that (1) the BXD84/RwwJ RI strain exhibits anxiety disorder and social avoidance-like behavior (2) BXD21/TyJ RI strain shows a resistance to depression illness, and (3) sex-dependent cytokine profiles and allodynia with elevated inflammatory activity were inherent to male BXD21/TyJ RI mice. In conclusion, we provide novel data in favor of the use of BXD recombinant inbred mice to further understand anxiety and depression disorders.

Muscular interleukin-6 differentially regulates skeletal muscle adaptation to high-fat diet in a sex-dependent manner.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is now known to be not only a major cytokine controlling the immune system but also basic physiological variables such as body weight and metabolism. We recently reported that muscle-specific interleukin-6 deletion influences body weight and body fat in a sex-dependent manner in mice. When compared with littermate floxed controls, males gained less weight whereas females gained more weight after a 12-week high-fat diet treatment (HFD). We herewith report gender-differences of HFD treatment on fast and slow skeletal muscle in muscle-specific IL-6 deficient mice. While gross muscle architecture was normal, in males, HFD resulted in an increased proportion of medium-large size myofibers which was prevented by muscle IL-6 deletion. No modifications of fiber size were observed in females. HFD induced a fiber-type switching in tibialis muscle, increasing the proportion of fast-oxidative fibers and decreasing the fast-glycolytic fibers in female mice which were dependent on muscle IL-6. No changes of fiber types were detected in males. Finally, HFD was associated with increased collagen deposition in both sexes and muscle types. However, this effect was only associated to the presence of muscular IL-6 only on the slow soleus muscle in males. The results demonstrate sex-dependent effects of both HFD and muscle IL-6 deficiency in skeletal muscle.

Muscle-specific interleukin-6 deletion influences body weight and body fat in a sex-dependent manner.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a major cytokine controlling not only the immune system but also basic physiological variables such as body weight and metabolism. While central IL-6 is clearly implicated in the latter, the putative role of peripheral IL-6 controlling body weight remains unclear. We herewith report results obtained in muscle-specific IL-6 KO (mIL-6 KO) mice. mIL-6 KO male mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD, 58.4% kcal from fat) or a control diet (18%) gained less weight and body fat than littermate floxed male mice, while the opposite pattern was observed in female mice. Food intake was not affected by muscle IL-6 deficiency, but male and female mIL-6 KO mice were more and less active, respectively, in the hole-board test. Moreover, female mIL-6 KO mice did not control adequately their body temperature upon exposure to 4°C, suggesting a role of muscle IL-6 in energy expenditure. At least part of this regulatory role of muscle IL-6 may be mediated by the hypothalamus, as IL-6 deficiency regulated the expression of critical hypothalamic neuropeptides (NPY, AgRP, POMC, CRH and preproOX). Leptin and insulin changes cannot explain the phenotype of these mice. In summary, the present results demonstrate that muscle IL-6 controls body weight and body fat in a sex-specific fashion, influencing the expression of the main neuropeptides involved in energy homeostasis.

Induction of atypical EAE mediated by transgenic production of IL-6 in astrocytes in the absence of systemic IL-6.

Interleukin (IL)-6 is crucial for the induction of many murine models of autoimmunity including experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis. While IL-6-deficient mice (IL-6 KO) are resistant to EAE, we showed previously that in transgenic mice with astrocyte-targeted production of IL-6-restricted to the cerebellum (GFAP-IL6), EAE induced with MOG(35-55) was redirected away from the spinal cord to the cerebellum. To further establish the importance of IL-6 produced in the central nervous system, we have generated mice producing IL-6 essentially only in the brain by crossing the GFAP-IL6 mice with IL-6 KO mice. Interestingly, GFAP-IL6-IL-6 KO mice showed a milder but almost identical phenotype as the GFAP-IL6 mice, which correlated with a lower load of inflammatory cells and decreased microglial reactivity. These results indicate that not only is cerebellar IL-6 production and eventual leakage into the peripheral compartment the dominating factor controlling this type of EAE but that it can also facilitate induction of autoimmunity in the absence of normal systemic IL-6 production.

Astrocyte-specific deficiency of interleukin-6 and its receptor reveal specific roles in survival, body weight and behavior.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a major cytokine which controls not only the immune system but also exhibits many other functions including effects in the central nervous system (CNS). IL-6 is known to be produced by different cells in the CNS, and all the major CNS do respond to IL-6, which makes it difficult to dissect the specific roles of each cell type when assessing the role of IL-6 in the brain. We have produced for the first time floxed mice for IL-6 and have crossed them with GFAP-Cre mice to delete IL-6 in astrocytes (Ast-IL-6 KO mice), and have compared their phenotype with that of mice with deletion of IL-6 receptor in astrocytes (Ast-IL6R KO mice). Our results indicate a major prosurvival role of the astrocyte IL-6 system at early ages (intrauterine life), which was also involved to various degrees in the control of adult body weight, locomotor activity, anxiety and exploratory behaviors. In some occasions deleting IL-6R in astrocytes mimicked the phenotype of Ast-IL-6 KO mice (i.e. activity), while in others the opposite was observed (i.e. exploration), suggesting autocrine and paracrine (presumably on neurons) roles of astrocyte IL-6. Our results suggest important roles of the astrocyte IL-6 system on normal brain physiology, in some cases totally unexpected from previous results with total IL-6 KO mice.