Drainage Network Morphology Influences Population Structure and Gene Flow of the Andean Water Frog Telmatobius pefauri (Anura: Telmatobiidae) of the Atacama Desert, Northern Chile.

Desert aquatic species tend to show isolated and disconnected populations due to the fragmented nature of their environment; however, the morphology of the hydrographic basins, added to humid climatic conditions, can allow dispersion between populations in a desert environment. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of drainage morphology on the phylogeographic structure and gene flow (using a fragment of the mitochondrial control region and seven microsatellite markers) of an endemic taxon of the Andean Precordillera in the Atacama Desert, the aquatic frog species Telmatobius pefauri. We detected three genetic clusters, one cluster present in the Lluta basin and two clusters in the Azapa basin. The results suggest that the genetic structure of T. pefauri is influenced by the morphology of the drainage network formed by the Lluta and Azapa basins: localities present in the same drainage, Tignamar River, were less differentiated and showed higher gene flow levels among them than to their conspecifics belonging to the other drainage in the same basin, Seco River, and those belonging to the other basin, Lluta basin. Gene flow patterns and genetic structure to populations Atacama Andean aquatic taxa would be influenced by basin morphology, with dispersion being stimulated in dendritic hydrological systems, and eventually by humid climatic (regional) events.

Phylogeny of Telmatobius marmoratus complex (Anura, Telmatobiidae) reveals high cryptic diversity in the Andean Altiplano.

Telmatobius is the most diverse group of anurans in the Andean Altiplano (highlands) Morphologically, these amphibians have a generally conserved morphology but in turn present large intraspecific variation, which has led to a complex taxonomy and systematics. T. marmoratus has the widest distribution of the genus and forms a complex composed of at least two Telmatobius species. Partial systematic studies based on molecular evidence reveal the existence of three lineages with a complex spatial distribution. However, these studies did not include the entire distribution of T. marmoratus. Our study aims to reassess the current systematic scenario including the complete distribution of the complex. For this, we used a multilocus approach based on mitochondrial (16S, Cytb) and nuclear (RAG1-1, BFIB) DNA sequences to build a phylogenetic hypothesis based on Bayesian inference, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony. Subsequently, we performed single-locus (ABGD and PTP) and multilocus (STACEY) species delimitation analyses to verify the diversity of nominal species within the complex. The analyses suggest seven non-sibling lineages and 6-10 candidate species within the marmoratus complex. Only one of the two lineages restricted to the central northern plateau correspond to T. marmoratus sensu stricto. South-central marbled water frogs belong to completely new lineages closer to T. gigas and T. culeus, evidencing the polyphyletic condition of the marmoratus complex. The findings of several sympatric lineages in some localities reveal a complex history of ancient water connections in south-central Altiplano.

High levels of connectivity over large distances in the diadematid sea urchin Centrostephanus sylviae.

Most benthic marine invertebrates with sedentary benthic adult phases have planktonic larvae that permit connectivity between geographically isolated populations. Planktonic larval duration and oceanographic processes are vital to connecting populations of species inhabiting remote and distant islands. In the present study, we analyzed the population genetic structure of the sea urchin Centrostephanus sylviae, which inhabits only the Juan Fernández Archipelago and the Desventuradas islands, separated by more than 800 km. For 92 individuals collected from Robinson Crusoe and Selkirk Islands (Juan Fernández Archipelago) and San Ambrosio Island (Desventuradas Islands), 7,067 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were obtained. The results did not show a spatial genetic structure for C. sylviae; relative high migration rates were revealed between the islands. An analysis of the water circulation pattern in the area described a predominant northward water flow with periods of inverted flow, suggesting that larvae could move in both directions. Overall, this evidence suggests that C. sylviae comprises a single large population composed of individuals separated by more than 800 km.

Development and characterization of 22 polymorphic microsatellites of the Andean frog Telmatobius chusmisensis (Anura, Telmatobius) and cross amplification in seven Chilean species of the genus.

The genus Telmatobius Wiegmann, 1834 is composed of a wide variety of species and is one of the most diverse native components of the high-altitude Andean environments. The species of the genus present in Chile are considered as endangered, critically endangered or data deficient. We isolated and evaluated 44 microsatellites in 80 individuals of 8 species of Telmatobius present in Chile, obtaining 22 polymorphic microsatellite loci for Telmatobius chusmisensis. The cross-amplification test was successful in all other species tested. For the first time, microsatellite markers are described for Telmatobius. The description of these primers will be useful for further genetic studies for T. chusmisensis and other species of the same genus; allowing further analyses of population structuring, dispersal patterns, recent demographic history and population effective size. This information is also significant to undertake conservation actions for the species of the genus Telmatobius, since most species have conservation issues.

Where is the enigmatic Telmatobius halli Noble 1938? Rediscovery and clarification of a frog species not seen for 80 years.

Telmatobius halli was the first endemic Telmatobius species described in Chile, reported by Noble in 1938 near the locality of Ollagüe, in the high Andean zone of the Antofagasta region. To this date, there are no specimens assignable to this species other than the type series; although many expeditions have tried to search for T. halli, they have been unsuccessful, but they have found and described new species around this area. In order to clarify the origin of the enigmatic T. halli, we reviewed the itinerary of the expedition carried out by F. G. Hall in the Chilean Altiplano, to place a putative type locality. We contrast the morphology of the holotype, with that of recently collected specimens from the new putative type locality, to confirm the population's identity; and finally, we perform phylogenetic analyses in order to clarify the systematic position of this taxon. The historical review of the expedition that collected these frogs shows that it is likely that Telmatobius halli had been collected near Collahuasi, about 50 km northwest of Ollagüe, site that we have assigned as a putative type locality for T. halli. The morphological analyses support this hypothesis, while phylogenetic results show that the specimens assigned to this species form a monophyletic group, and is a sister clade of T. chusmisensis. Thus, we propose that the type locality of T. halli be changed from "around Ollagüe" to the area of the Copaquire ravine, so its distribution would be restricted to this system and Choja-Chijlla ravine, both in the high Andean zone of the Región de Tarapacá, Chile.

The taxonomic status of two Telmatobius frog species (Anura: Telmatobiidae) from the western Andean slopes of northernmost Chile.

On the basis of molecular and morphological evidence, we evaluated the taxonomic identity of two species of Andean frogs of the genus Telmatobius: Telmatobius pefauri and T. zapahuirensis, present in the western Andean slopes at the northern extreme of Chile. We also investigated the taxonomic assignment of five populations of Telmatobius recently discovered around the type localities of these two species. The results indicate that T. pefauri inhabits, not only Murmuntani its type locality, but also the montane localities of Belén, Copaquilla, Lupica, Saxamar and Socoroma. Our study also shows that T. pefauri and T. zapahuirensis are the same taxon. Therefore, Telmatobius zapahuirensis Veloso, Sallaberry, Navarro, Iturra, Valencia, Penna & Díaz, 1982 would be a subjective junior synonym of Telmatobius pefauri Veloso & Trueb, 1976.

Evolution and Conservation on Top of the World: Phylogeography of the Marbled Water Frog (Telmatobius marmoratus Species Complex; Anura, Telmatobiidae) in Protected Areas of Chile.

The Andean Altiplano has served as a complex setting throughout its history, driving dynamic processes of diversification in several taxa. We investigated phylogeographic processes in the Telmatobius marmoratus species complex occurring in this region by studying the geographic patterns of genetic variability, genealogies, and historical migration, using the cytochrome b (cyt-b) gene as a marker. DNA sequences from Telmatobius gigas and Telmatobius culeus, Bolivian species with an uncertain taxonomic status, were also included. Additionally, we evaluated the phylogenetic diversity (PD) represented within Chilean protected areas and the complementary contribution from unprotected populations. Phylogenetic reconstructions from 148 cyt-b sequences revealed 4 main clades, one of which corresponded to T. culeus. T. gigas was part of T. marmoratus clade indicating paraphyletic relationships. Haplotypes from Chilean and Bolivian sites were not reciprocally monophyletic. Geographic distribution of lineages, spatial Bayesian analysis, and migration patterns indicated that T. marmoratus displays a weaker geographic structure than expected based on habitat distribution and physiological requirements. Demographic and statistical phylogeography analyses pointed out to a scenario of recent population expansion and high connectivity events of a more recent age than the post Last Glacial Maximum, probably associated to more humid events in Altiplano. PD of T. marmoratus populations within protected areas represents 55.6% of the total estimated PD. The unprotected populations that would contribute the most to PD are Caquena and Quebe (21%). Recent evolutionary processes and paleoclimatic changes, potentially driving shifts in habitat connectivity levels and population sizes, could explain the phylogeographic patterns recovered herein.