pH and the Breast Cancer Recurrent Mutation D538G Affect the Process of Activation of Estrogen Receptor α.

Estrogen receptor α (ERα) is a regulatory protein that can access a set of distinct structural configurations. ERα undergoes extensive remodeling as it interacts with different agonists and antagonists, as well as transcription activation and repression factors. Moreover, breast cancer tumors resistant to hormone therapy have been associated with the imbalance between the active and inactive ERα states. Cancer-activating mutations in ERα play a crucial role in this imbalance and can promote the progression of cancer. However, the rate of this progression can also be increased by dysregulated pH in the tumor microenvironment. Many molecular aspects of the process of activation of ERα that can be affected by these pH changes and mutations are still unclear. Thus, we applied computational and experimental techniques to explore the activation process dynamics of ER for environments with different pHs and in the presence of one of the most recurrent cancer-activating mutations, D538G. Our results indicated that the effect of the pH increase associated with the D538G mutation promoted a robust stabilization of the active state of ER. We were also able to determine the main protein regions that have the most potential to influence the activation process under different pH conditions, which may provide targets of future therapeutics for the treatment of hormone-resistant breast cancer tumors. Finally, the approach used here can be applied for proteins associated with the proliferation of other cancer types, which can also have their function affected by small pH changes.

Multifactorial Basis and Therapeutic Strategies in Metabolism-Related Diseases.

Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the incidence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, has been increasing worldwide. Changes in dietary and physical activity patterns, along with genetic conditions, are the main factors that modulate the metabolism of individuals, leading to the development of NCDs. Obesity, diabetes, metabolic associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are classified in this group of chronic diseases. Therefore, understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of these diseases leads us to develop more accurate and effective treatments to reduce or mitigate their prevalence in the population. Given the global relevance of NCDs and ongoing research progress, this article reviews the current understanding about NCDs and their related risk factors, with a focus on obesity, diabetes, MAFLD, and CVDs, summarizing the knowledge about their pathophysiology and highlighting the currently available and emerging therapeutic strategies, especially pharmacological interventions. All of these diseases play an important role in the contamination by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, as well as in the progression and severity of the symptoms of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Therefore, we briefly explore the relationship between NCDs and COVID-19.

Opposing action of NCoR1 and PGC-1α in mitochondrial redox homeostasis.

The ability to respond to fluctuations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within the cell is a central aspect of mammalian physiology. This dynamic process depends on the coordinated action of transcriptional factors to promote the expression of genes encoding for antioxidant enzymes. Here, we demonstrate that the transcriptional coregulators, PGC-1α and NCoR1, are essential mediators of mitochondrial redox homeostasis in skeletal muscle cells. Our findings reveal an antagonistic role of these coregulators in modulating mitochondrial antioxidant induction through Sod2 transcriptional control. Importantly, the activation of this mechanism by either PGC-1α overexpression or NCoR1 knockdown attenuates mitochondrial ROS levels and prevents cell death caused by lipid overload in skeletal muscle cells. The opposing actions of coactivators and corepressors, therefore, exert a commanding role over cellular antioxidant capacity.

Thioredoxin-1 Negatively Modulates ADAM17 Activity Through Direct Binding and Indirect Reductive Activity.

AIMS: A disintegrin and metalloprotease 17 (ADAM17) modulates signaling events by releasing surface protein ectodomains such as TNFa and the EGFR-ligands. We have previously characterized cytoplasmic thioredoxin-1 (Trx-1) as a partner of ADAM17 cytoplasmic domain. Still, the mechanism of ADAM17 regulation by Trx-1 is unknown, and it has become of paramount importance to assess the degree of influence that Trx-1 has on metalloproteinase ADAM17. RESULTS: Combining discovery and targeted proteomic approaches, we uncovered that Trx-1 negatively regulates ADAM17 by direct and indirect effect. We performed cell-based assays with synthetic peptides and site-directed mutagenesis, and we demonstrated that the interaction interface of Trx-1 and ADAM17 is important for the negative regulation of ADAM17 activity. However, both Trx-1K72A and catalytic site mutant Trx-1C32/35S rescued ADAM17 activity, although the interaction with Trx-1C32/35S was unaffected, suggesting an indirect effect of Trx-1. We confirmed that the Trx-1C32/35S mutant showed diminished reductive capacity, explaining this indirect effect on increasing ADAM17 activity through oxidant levels. Interestingly, Trx-1K72A mutant showed similar oxidant levels to Trx-1C32/35S, even though its catalytic site was preserved. We further demonstrated that the general reactive oxygen species inhibitor, Nacetylcysteine (NAC), maintained the regulation of ADAM17 dependent of Trx-1 reductase activity levels; whereas the electron transport chain modulator, rotenone, abolished Trx-1 effect on ADAM17 activity. INNOVATION: We show for the first time that the mechanism of ADAM17 regulation, Trx-1 dependent, can be by direct interaction and indirect effect, bringing new insights into the cross-talk between isomerases and mammalian metalloproteinases. CONCLUSION: This unexpected Trx-1K72A behavior was due to more dimer formation and, consequently, the reduction of its Trx-1 reductase activity, evaluated through dimer verification, by gel filtration and mass spectrometry analysis. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 29, 717-734.

Fasciculation and elongation zeta-1 protein (FEZ1) interacts with the retinoic acid receptor and participates in transcriptional regulation of the Hoxb4 gene.

Fasciculation and elongation zeta-1 (FEZ1) protein is involved in axon outgrowth and is highly expressed in the brain. It has multiple interaction partners, with functions varying from the regulation of neuronal development and intracellular transport mechanisms to transcription regulation. One of its interactors is retinoic acid receptor (RAR), which is activated by retinoic acid and controls many target genes and physiological process. Based on previous evidence suggesting a possible nuclear role for FEZ1, we wanted to deepen our understanding of this function by addressing the FEZ1-RAR interaction. We performed in vitro binding experiments and assessed the interface of interaction between both proteins. We found that FEZ1-RAR interacted with a similar magnitude as RAR to its responsive element DR5 and that the interaction occurred in the coiled-coil region of FEZ1 and in the ligand-binding domain of RAR. Furthermore, cellular experiments were performed in order to confirm the interaction and screen for induced target genes from an 86-gene panel. The analysis of gene expression showed that only in the presence of retinoic acid did FEZ1 induce hoxb4 gene expression. This finding is consistent with data from the literature showing the hoxb4 gene functionally involved in development and acute myeloid leukemia, as is FEZ1.

Protein Disulfide Isomerase Modulates the Activation of Thyroid Hormone Receptors.

Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are responsible for mediating thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) actions at a cellular level. They belong to the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily and execute their main functions inside the cell nuclei as hormone-regulated transcription factors. These receptors also exhibit so-called "non-classic" actions, for which other cellular proteins, apart from coregulators inside nuclei, regulate their activity. Aiming to find alternative pathways of TR modulation, we searched for interacting proteins and found that PDIA1 interacts with TRß in a yeast two-hybrid screening assay. The functional implications of PDIA1-TR interactions are still unclear; however, our co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) and fluorescence assay results showed that PDI was able to bind both TR isoforms in vitro. Moreover, T3 appears to have no important role in these interactions in cellular assays, where PDIA1 was able to regulate transcription of TRα and TRß-mediated genes in different ways depending on the promoter region and on the TR isoform involved. Although PDIA1 appears to act as a coregulator, it binds to a TR surface that does not interfere with coactivator binding. However, the TR:PDIA1 complex affinity and activation are different depending on the TR isoform. Such differences may reflect the structural organization of the PDIA1:TR complex, as shown by models depicting an interaction interface with exposed cysteines from both proteins, suggesting that PDIA1 might modulate TR by its thiol reductase/isomerase activity.

Signaling through retinoic acid receptors in cardiac development: Doing the right things at the right times.

Retinoic acid (RA) is a terpenoid that is synthesized from vitamin A/retinol (ROL) and binds to the nuclear receptors retinoic acid receptor (RAR)/retinoid X receptor (RXR) to control multiple developmental processes in vertebrates. The available clinical and experimental data provide uncontested evidence for the pleiotropic roles of RA signaling in development of multiple embryonic structures and organs such eyes, central nervous system, gonads, lungs and heart. The development of any of these above-mentioned embryonic organ systems can be effectively utilized to showcase the many strategies utilized by RA signaling. However, it is very likely that the strategies employed to transfer RA signals during cardiac development comprise the majority of the relevant and sophisticated ways through which retinoid signals can be conveyed in a complex biological system. Here, we provide the reader with arguments indicating that RA signaling is exquisitely regulated according to specific phases of cardiac development and that RA signaling itself is one of the major regulators of the timing of cardiac morphogenesis and differentiation. We will focus on the role of signaling by RA receptors (RARs) in early phases of heart development. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Nuclear receptors in animal development.

RXR agonist modulates TR: corepressor dissociation upon 9-cis retinoic acid treatment.

Transcriptional regulation controlled by thyroid hormone receptor (TR) drives events such as development, differentiation, and metabolism. TRs may act either as homodimers or as heterodimers with retinoid X receptor (RXR). Thyroid hormone T3 preferentially binds TR-RXR heterodimers, which activate transcription through coactivator recruitment. However, it is unclear whether TR-RXR heterodimers may also be responsive to the canonical RXR agonist 9-cis retinoic acid (9C) in the context of physiological gene regulation. New structural studies suggest that 9C promotes the displacement of bound coactivators from the heterodimer, modifying TR-RXR activity. To shed light on the molecular mechanisms that control TR-RXR function, we used biophysical approaches to characterize coregulator recruitment to TR-TR or to TR-RXR in the presence of T3 and/or 9C as well as cell-based assays to establish the functional significance of biophysical findings. Using cell-based and fluorescence assays with mutant and wild-type TR, we show that 9C does indeed have a function in the TR-RXR heterodimer context, in which it induces the release of corepressors. Furthermore, we show that 9C does not promote detectable conformational changes in the structure of the TR-RXR heterodimer and does not affect coactivator recruitment. Finally, our data support the view that DNA binding domain and Hinge regions are important to set up NR-coactivator binding interfaces. In summary, we showed that the RXR agonist 9C can regulate TR function through its modulation of corepressor dissociation.

Nanostructured sensors containing immobilized nuclear receptors for thyroid hormone detection.

Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are members of the nuclear receptors (NRs) superfamily, being encoded by two genes: TRa and TRbeta. In this paper, the ligand-binding domain (LBD) of the TRbeta1 isoform was immobilized on the surface of nanostructured electrodes for TR detection. The platforms containing TRbeta1-LBD were applied to the detection of specific ligand agonists, including the natural hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine), and the synthetic agonists TRIAC (3,5,3'-triiodothyroacetic acid) and GC-1 [3,5-dimethyl-4-(4'-hydroxy-3'-isopropylbenzyl phenoxy) acetic acid]. Detection was performed via impedance spectroscopy. The biosensors were capable of distinguishing between the thyroid hormones T3 and T4, and/or the analogues TRIAC and GC-1 at concentrations as low as 50 nM. The detection and separation of thyroid hormones and analogue ligands by impedance techniques represents an innovative tool in the field of nanomedicine because it allows the design of inexpensive devices for the rapid and real-time detection of distinct ligand/receptor systems.

Structure-based identification of novel PPAR gamma ligands.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) is a nuclear receptor with an important role in the glucose metabolism and a target for type 2 diabetes mellitus therapy. The recent findings relating the use of the receptor full agonist rosiglitazone and the incidence of myocardial infarction raised concerns regarding whether receptor activation can actually be useful for diabetes management. The discovery of MRL-24 and GQ-16, ligands that can partially activate PPARγ and prevent weight gain and fluid retention, showed that a submaximal receptor activation can be a goal in the development of new ligands for PPARγ. Additionally, two previously described receptor antagonists, SR-202 and BADGE, were also shown to improve insulin sensitivity and decrease TNF-α level, revealing that receptor antagonism may also be an approach to pursue. Here, we used a structure-based approach to screen the subset 'Drugs-Now' of ZINC database. Fifteen ligands were selected after visual inspection and tested for their ability to bind to PPARγ. A benzoimidazol acetate, a bromobenzyl-thio-tetrazol benzoate and a [[2-[(1,3-dioxoinden-2-ylidene)methyl]phenoxy]methyl]benzoate were identified as PPARγ ligands, with IC50 values smaller than 10µM. Molecular dynamic simulations showed that the residues H323, H449, Y327, Y473, K367 and S289 are key structural elements for the molecular recognition of these ligands and the polar arm of PPARγ binding pocket.

Structural insights into human peroxisome proliferator activated receptor delta (PPAR-delta) selective ligand binding.

Peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs δ, α and γ) are closely related transcription factors that exert distinct effects on fatty acid and glucose metabolism, cardiac disease, inflammatory response and other processes. Several groups developed PPAR subtype specific modulators to trigger desirable effects of particular PPARs without harmful side effects associated with activation of other subtypes. Presently, however, many compounds that bind to one of the PPARs cross-react with others and rational strategies to obtain highly selective PPAR modulators are far from clear. GW0742 is a synthetic ligand that binds PPARδ more than 300-fold more tightly than PPARα or PPARγ but the structural basis of PPARδ:GW0742 interactions and reasons for strong selectivity are not clear. Here we report the crystal structure of the PPARδ:GW0742 complex. Comparisons of the PPARδ:GW0742 complex with published structures of PPARs in complex with α and γ selective agonists and pan agonists suggests that two residues (Val312 and Ile328) in the buried hormone binding pocket play special roles in PPARδ selective binding and experimental and computational analysis of effects of mutations in these residues confirms this and suggests that bulky substituents that line the PPARα and γ ligand binding pockets as structural barriers for GW0742 binding. This analysis suggests general strategies for selective PPARδ ligand design.

Low-resolution molecular models reveal the oligomeric state of the PPAR and the conformational organization of its domains in solution.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) regulate genes involved in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and are targets of drugs approved for human use. Whereas the crystallographic structure of the complex of full length PPARγ and RXRα is known, structural alterations induced by heterodimer formation and DNA contacts are not well understood. Herein, we report a small-angle X-ray scattering analysis of the oligomeric state of hPPARγ alone and in the presence of retinoid X receptor (RXR). The results reveal that, in contrast with other studied nuclear receptors, which predominantly form dimers in solution, hPPARγ remains in the monomeric form by itself but forms heterodimers with hRXRα. The low-resolution models of hPPARγ/RXRα complexes predict significant changes in opening angle between heterodimerization partners (LBD) and extended and asymmetric shape of the dimer (LBD-DBD) as compared with X-ray structure of the full-length receptor bound to DNA. These differences between our SAXS models and the high-resolution crystallographic structure might suggest that there are different conformations of functional heterodimer complex in solution. Accordingly, hydrogen/deuterium exchange experiments reveal that the heterodimer binding to DNA promotes more compact and less solvent-accessible conformation of the receptor complex.

FERM domain interaction with myosin negatively regulates FAK in cardiomyocyte hypertrophy.

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) regulates cellular processes that affect several aspects of development and disease. The FAK N-terminal FERM (4.1 protein-ezrin-radixin-moesin homology) domain, a compact clover-leaf structure, binds partner proteins and mediates intramolecular regulatory interactions. Combined chemical cross-linking coupled to MS, small-angle X-ray scattering, computational docking and mutational analyses showed that the FAK FERM domain has a molecular cleft (~998 Å(2)) that interacts with sarcomeric myosin, resulting in FAK inhibition. Accordingly, mutations in a unique short amino acid sequence of the FERM myosin cleft, FP-1, impaired the interaction with myosin and enhanced FAK activity in cardiomyocytes. An FP-1 decoy peptide selectively inhibited myosin interaction and increased FAK activity, promoting cardiomyocyte hypertrophy through activation of the AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin pathway. Our findings uncover an inhibitory interaction between the FAK FERM domain and sarcomeric myosin that presents potential opportunities to modulate the cardiac hypertrophic response through changes in FAK activity.

Gaining ligand selectivity in thyroid hormone receptors via entropy.

Nuclear receptors are important targets for pharmaceuticals, but similarities between family members cause difficulties in obtaining highly selective compounds. Synthetic ligands that are selective for thyroid hormone (TH) receptor beta (TRbeta) vs. TRalpha reduce cholesterol and fat without effects on heart rate; thus, it is important to understand TRbeta-selective binding. Binding of 3 selective ligands (GC-1, KB141, and GC-24) is characterized at the atomic level; preferential binding depends on a nonconserved residue (Asn-331beta) in the TRbeta ligand-binding cavity (LBC), and GC-24 gains extra selectivity from insertion of a bulky side group into an extension of the LBC that only opens up with this ligand. Here we report that the natural TH 3,5,3'-triodothyroacetic acid (Triac) exhibits a previously unrecognized mechanism of TRbeta selectivity. TR x-ray structures reveal better fit of ligand with the TRalpha LBC. The TRbeta LBC, however, expands relative to TRalpha in the presence of Triac (549 A(3) vs. 461 A(3)), and molecular dynamics simulations reveal that water occupies the extra space. Increased solvation compensates for weaker interactions of ligand with TRbeta and permits greater flexibility of the Triac carboxylate group in TRbeta than in TRalpha. We propose that this effect results in lower entropic restraint and decreases free energy of interactions between Triac and TRbeta, explaining subtype-selective binding. Similar effects could potentially be exploited in nuclear receptor drug design.

Probing conformational changes in orphan nuclear receptor: the NGFI-B intermediate is a partially unfolded dimer.

Human nerve growth factor-induced B (NGFI-B) is a member of the NR4A subfamily of orphan nuclear receptors (NRs). Lacking identified ligands, orphan NRs show particular co-regulator proteins binding properties, different from other NRs, and they might have a non-classical quaternary organization. A body of evidence suggests that NRs recognition of and binding to ligands, DNA, homo- and heterodimerization partners and co-regulator proteins involve significant conformational changes of the NR ligand-binding domains (LBDs). To shed light on largely unknown biophysical properties of NGFI-B, here we studied structural organization and unfolding properties of NGFI-B ligand (like)-binding domain induced by chemical perturbation. Our results show that NGFI-B LBD undergoes a two-state guanidine hydrochloride (GndHCl) induced denaturation, as judged by changes in the alpha-helical content of the protein monitored by circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD). In contrast, changes in the tertiary structure of NGFI-B LBD, reported by intrinsic fluorescence, reveal a clear intermediate state. Additionally, SAXS results demonstrate that the intermediate observed by intrinsic fluorescence is a partially folded homodimeric structure, which further unfolds without dissociation at higher GndHCl concentrations. This partially unfolded dimeric assembly of NGFI-B LBD might resemble an intermediate that this domain access momentarily in the native state upon interactions with functional partners.

Orphan nuclear receptor NGFI-B forms dimers with nonclassical interface.

The orphan receptor nerve growth factor-induced B (NGFI-B) is a member of the nuclear receptor's subfamily 4A (Nr4a). NGFI-B was shown to be capable of binding both as a monomer to an extended half-site containing a single AAAGGTCA motif and also as a homodimer to a widely separated everted repeat, as opposed to a large number of nuclear receptors that recognize and bind specific DNA sequences predominantly as homo- and/or heterodimers. To unveil the structural organization of NGFI-B in solution, we determined the quaternary structure of the NGFI-B LBD by a combination of ab initio procedures from small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) data and hydrogen-deuterium exchange followed by mass spectrometry. Here we report that the protein forms dimers in solution with a radius of gyration of 2.9 nm and maximum dimension of 9.0 nm. We also show that the NGFI-B LBD dimer is V-shaped, with the opening angle significantly larger than that of classical dimer's exemplified by estrogen receptor (ER) or retinoid X receptor (RXR). Surprisingly, NGFI-B dimers formation does not occur via the classical nuclear receptor dimerization interface exemplified by ER and RXR, but instead, involves an extended surface area composed of the loop between helices 3 and 4 and C-terminal fraction of the helix 3. Remarkably, the NGFI-B dimer interface is similar to the dimerization interface earlier revealed for glucocorticoid nuclear receptor (GR), which might be relevant to the recognition of cognate DNA response elements by NGFI-B and to antagonism of NGFI-B-dependent transcription exercised by GR in cells.

Structural rearrangements in the thyroid hormone receptor hinge domain and their putative role in the receptor function.

The thyroid hormone receptor (TR) D-domain links the ligand-binding domain (LBD, EF-domain) to the DNA-binding domain (DBD, C-domain), but its structure, and even its existence as a functional unit, are controversial. The D domain is poorly conserved throughout the nuclear receptor family and was originally proposed to comprise an unfolded hinge that facilitates rotation between the LBD and the DBD. Previous TR LBD structures, however, have indicated that the true unstructured region is three to six amino acid residues long and that the D-domain N terminus folds into a short amphipathic alpha-helix (H0) contiguous with the DBD and that the C terminus of the D-domain comprises H1 and H2 of the LBD. Here, we solve structures of TR-LBDs in different crystal forms and show that the N terminus of the TRalpha D-domain can adopt two structures; it can either fold into an amphipathic helix that resembles TRbeta H0 or form an unstructured loop. H0 formation requires contacts with the AF-2 coactivator-binding groove of the neighboring TR LBD, which binds H0 sequences that resemble coactivator LXXLL motifs. Structural analysis of a liganded TR LBD with small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) suggests that AF-2/H0 interactions mediate dimerization of this protein in solution. We propose that the TR D-domain has the potential to form functionally important extensions of the DBD and LBD or unfold to permit TRs to adapt to different DNA response elements. We also show that mutations of the D domain LXXLL-like motif indeed selectively inhibit TR interactions with an inverted palindromic response element (F2) in vitro and TR activity at this response element in cell-based transfection experiments.

A complete approach for recombinant protein expression training: From gene cloning to assessment of protein functionality*.

A practical course was given to undergraduate biology students enrolled in the elective course "Introduction to Genetic Engineering" at the Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Paulo, Brazil. The goal of the course was to teach current molecular biology tools applied to a real research situation that could be reported by the students themselves. The purpose was to produce a plant recombinant protein and demonstrate a heretofore unreported biological activity. Cystatins, natural inhibitors of cysteine proteases, were proposed for these studies. Initially, the students searched for plant cystatin cDNA sequences in the NCBI databases and selected the Oryzacystatin I gene (ocI) from rice, Oriza sativa, as the target gene for this study. Total RNA was extracted from rice-germinating seeds and primers containing restriction sites for NdeI and EcoRI were designed based on the ocI cDNA sequence and then used to amplify the open reading frame (ORF). RT-PCR amplification provided a band of the expected size for ocI ORF (309 bp). The PCR product was cut with NdeI and EcoRI restriction enzymes and cloned directly in the pET28a expression vector digested with the same enzymes. A pET28-ocI recombinant clone was selected, checked by sequencing, and used to transform Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) expression strain. After induction of the bacteria with isopropylthiogalactoside and cellular disruption, the His-tagged OCI protein, present mainly in the soluble fraction, was purified by affinity chromatography in a nickel column. The purified protein was successfully used to inhibit fungal growth (Trichoderma reesei). The results were discussed extensively and the students contributed to the writing of this article, of which they are co-authors.