APOE genotype and sex affect microglial interactions with plaques in Alzheimer's disease mice.

Microglia affect Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis in opposing manners, by protecting against amyloid accumulation in early phases of the disease and promoting neuropathology in advanced stages. Recent research has identified specific microglial interactions with amyloid plaques that exert important protective functions including attenuation of early pathology. It is unknown how these protective microglial interactions with plaques are affected by apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype and sex, two well-established AD risk factors that modulate microglial function. We investigated this question using quantitative confocal microscopy to compare microglial interactions with amyloid plaques in male and female EFAD mice across APOE3 and APOE4 genotypes at 6 months of age. We observed that microglial coverage of plaques is highest in male APOE3 mice with significant reductions in coverage observed with both APOE4 genotype and female sex. Plaque compaction, a beneficial consequence of microglial interactions with plaques, showed a similar pattern in which APOE4 genotype and female sex were associated with significantly lower values. Within the plaque environment, microglial expression of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), a known regulator of microglial plaque coverage, was highest in male APOE3 mice and reduced by APOE4 genotype and female sex. These differences in plaque interactions were unrelated to the number of microglial processes in the plaque environment across groups. Interestingly, the pattern of amyloid burden across groups was opposite to that of microglial plaque coverage, with APOE4 genotype and female sex showing the highest amyloid levels. These findings suggest a possible mechanism by which microglia may contribute to the increased AD risk associated with APOE4 genotype and female sex.

Prenatal and early life exposure to air pollution induced hippocampal vascular leakage and impaired neurogenesis in association with behavioral deficits.

Exposure to traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) is associated with a range of neurodevelopmental disorders in human populations. In rodent models, prenatal TRAP exposure increased depressive behaviors and increased brain microglial activity. To identify cellular mechanisms, we examined adult neurogenesis and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in relation to cognition and motivated behaviors in rats that were exposed to a nano-sized TRAP subfraction from gestation into adulthood. At age 5 months, exposed male rats had 70% fewer newly generated neurons in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. Microglia were activated in DG and CA1 subfields (35% more Iba1). The BBB was altered, with a 75% decrease of the tight junction protein ZO-1 in the CA1 layer, and twofold more iron deposits, a marker of microhemorrhages. The exposed rats had impaired contextual memory (novel object in context), reduced food-seeking behavior, and increased depressive behaviors (forced swim). Deficits of de novo neurogenesis were inversely correlated with depressive behavior, whereas increased microbleeds were inversely correlated with deficits in contextual memory. These findings give the first evidence that prenatal and early life exposure to TRAP impairs adult hippocampal neurogenesis and increases microbleeds in association with behavioral deficits.

Comment on "The plateau of human mortality: Demography of longevity pioneers".

Barbi et al (Reports, 29 June 2018, p. 1459) reported that human mortality rate reached a "plateau" after the age of 105, suggesting there may be no limit to human longevity. We show, using their data, that potential lifespans cannot increase much beyond the current 122 years unless future biomedical advances alter the intrinsic rate of human aging.

Particulate air pollutants, APOE alleles and their contributions to cognitive impairment in older women and to amyloidogenesis in experimental models.

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) in the ambient air and its interactions with APOE alleles may contribute to the acceleration of brain aging and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Neurodegenerative effects of particulate air pollutants were examined in a US-wide cohort of older women from the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS) and in experimental mouse models. Residing in places with fine PM exceeding EPA standards increased the risks for global cognitive decline and all-cause dementia respectively by 81 and 92%, with stronger adverse effects in APOE ɛ4/4 carriers. Female EFAD transgenic mice (5xFAD+/-/human APOE ɛ3 or ɛ4+/+) with 225 h exposure to urban nanosized PM (nPM) over 15 weeks showed increased cerebral ß-amyloid by thioflavin S for fibrillary amyloid and by immunocytochemistry for Aß deposits, both exacerbated by APOE ɛ4. Moreover, nPM exposure increased Aß oligomers, caused selective atrophy of hippocampal CA1 neurites, and decreased the glutamate GluR1 subunit. Wildtype C57BL/6 female mice also showed nPM-induced CA1 atrophy and GluR1 decrease. In vitro nPM exposure of neuroblastoma cells (N2a-APP/swe) increased the pro-amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). We suggest that airborne PM exposure promotes pathological brain aging in older women, with potentially a greater impact in ɛ4 carriers. The underlying mechanisms may involve increased cerebral Aß production and selective changes in hippocampal CA1 neurons and glutamate receptor subunits.

Rust on the Brain from Microbleeds and Its Relevance to Alzheimer Studies: Invited Commentary on Cacciottolo Neurobiology of Aging, 2016.

Cerebral microbleeds (MB) and small vessel disease (SVD) with congophilic arterial angiopathy (CAA) are increasingly recognized as a variable factor in AD cognitive impairments. This commentary on our recent report on sex-ApoE interactions in MBs published this February, briefly explores three aspects of MBs that could not be fully discussed therein: I, A possible gap between the prevalence of MBs as detected by MRI and post mortem analysis; II, The role of hemoglobin-degradation products in amyloid-attributed neurodegenerative changes; and III, Possible assessment of MB by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) assays for iron-related markers to better screen patient subgroups for AD interventions.

Pgrmc1: new roles in the microglial mediation of progesterone-antagonism of estradiol-dependent neurite sprouting and in microglial activation.

Pgrmc1 (progesterone receptor membrane component 1) is a multifunctional 22 kDa protein with heme-binding and P450-activating capacity which was recognized under different names for roles in cell motility during neural development and in cancer, and apoptosis. Pgrmc1 expression in microglia was recently shown by the present authors to mediate estrogen-progesterone interactions during axonal sprouting and to mediate microglial activation itself. We also discuss other functions of Pgramc1 in the nervous system and its possible relationship to the 18 kDa sigma-2 receptor (S2R).

Progesterone antagonism of neurite outgrowth depends on microglial activation via Pgrmc1/S2R.

Neuronal plasticity is regulated by the ovarian steroids estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) in many normal brain functions, as well as in acute response to injury and chronic neurodegenerative disease. In a female rat model of axotomy, the E2-dependent compensatory neuronal sprouting is antagonized by P4. To resolve complex glial-neuronal cell interactions, we used the "wounding-in-a-dish" model of neurons cocultured with astrocytes or mixed glia (microglia to astrocytes, 1:3). Although both astrocytes and mixed glia supported E2-enhanced neurite outgrowth, P4 antagonized E2-induced neurite outgrowth only with mixed glia, but not astrocytes alone. We now show that P4-E2 antagonism of neurite outgrowth is mediated by microglial expression of progesterone receptor (Pgr) membrane component 1 (Pgrmc1)/S2R, a putative nonclassical Pgr mediator with multiple functions. The P4-E2 antagonism of neurite outgrowth was restored by add-back of microglia to astrocyte-neuron cocultures. Because microglia do not express the classical Pgr, we examined the role of Pgrmc1, which is expressed in microglia in vitro and in vivo. Knockdown by siRNA-Pgrmc1 in microglia before add-back to astrocyte-neuron cocultures suppressed the P4-E2 antagonism of neurite outgrowth. Conditioned media from microglia restored the P4-E2 activity, but only if microglia were activated by lipopolysaccharide or by wounding. Moreover, the microglial activation was blocked by Pgmrc1-siRNA knockdown. These findings explain why nonwounded cultures without microglial activation lack P4 antagonism of E2-induced neurite outgrowth. We suggest that microglial activation may influence brain responses to exogenous P4, which is a prospective therapy in traumatic brain injury.

Early cohort mortality predicts the rate of aging in the cohort: a historical analysis.

Early environmental influences on later-life health and mortality are well recognized in the doubling of life expectancy since 1800. To further define these relationships, we analyzed the associations between early-life mortality and both the estimated mortality level at age 40 and the exponential acceleration in mortality rates with age characterized by the Gompertz model. Using mortality data from 630 cohorts born throughout the 19th and early 20th century in nine European countries, we developed a multilevel model that accounts for cohort and period effects in later-life mortality. We show that early-life mortality, which is linked to exposure to infection and poor nutrition, predicts both the estimated cohort mortality level at age 40 and the subsequent Gompertz rate of mortality acceleration during aging. After controlling for effects of country and period, the model accounts for the majority of variance in the Gompertz parameters (about 90% of variation in the estimated level of mortality at age 40 and about 78% of variation in the Gompertz slope). The gains in cohort survival to older ages are entirely due to large declines in adult mortality level, because the rates of mortality acceleration at older ages became faster. These findings apply to cohorts born in both the 19th century and the early 20th century. This analysis defines new links in the developmental origins of adult health and disease in which effects of early-life circumstances, such as exposure to infections or poor nutrition, persist into mid-adulthood and remain evident in the cohort mortality rates from ages 40 to 90.

Lingering prenatal effects of the 1918 influenza pandemic on cardiovascular disease.

Prenatal exposure to the 1918 influenza pandemic (Influenza A, H1N1 subtype) is associated with ⩾20% excess cardiovascular disease at 60 to 82 years of age, relative to cohorts born without exposure to the influenza epidemic, either prenatally or postnatally (defined by the quarter of birth), in the 1982-1996 National Health Interview Surveys of the USA. Males showed stronger effects of influenza on increased later heart disease than females. Adult height at World War II enlistment was lower for the 1919 birth cohort than for those born in adjacent years, suggesting growth retardation. Calculations on the prevalence of maternal infections indicate that prenatal exposure to even uncomplicated maternal influenza may have lasting consequences later in life. These findings suggest novel roles for maternal infections in the fetal programming of cardiovascular risk factors that are independent of maternal malnutrition.

Anti-inflammatory mechanisms of dietary restriction in slowing aging processes.

Dietary restriction (DR) remains the most powerful and general environmental manipulation of aging processes in laboratory animals with strong beneficial effects on most age-related degenerative changes throughout the body. Underlying the beneficial effects of DR is the attenuation of system-wide inflammatory processes including those occurring within the central nervous system. During normal aging a progressive neuroinflammatory state builds in the brain involving astrocytes and microglia, the primary cellular components of neuroinflammation. DR attenuates the age-related activation of astrocytes and microglia with concomitant beneficial effects on neurodegeneration and cognition. Increasing evidence suggests that common pathways are emerging that link many normal aging inflammatory processes with age-related diseases such as Alzheimer, cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

Complement activation in very early Alzheimer disease.

The activation of the classical complement (C)-system in early-stage Alzheimer disease (AD) and nondemented aging was examined with immunohistochemistry in subjects assessed by the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR). Activation (staining for C3 and C4 fragments) was found in all brains with amyloid deposits, including all nondemented (CDR 0) cases, with either small numbers of diffuse plaques or with sufficient plaques and tangles to indicate preclinical AD. Staining for C3 and C4 increased in parallel with plaque density in very mild to severe clinical AD. A subset of very mild AD (CDR 0.5) cases also showed C1q (on plaques) and C5b-9 (on neuritic plaques and tangles), whereas these C-fragments were consistently found in severe AD (CDR 3). Mirror section (split-face) analysis showed that C1q, C3, and apoJ (clusterin) occurred on the same plaques. However, C-system regulators CD59, CR1, DAF, and MCP were not detected on plaques or tangles at any stage, indicating that C-activation related to AD is incompletely controlled.

Apolipoprotein J (clusterin) activates rodent microglia in vivo and in vitro.

Apolipoprotein J (apoJ; also known as clusterin and sulfated glycoprotein (SGP)-2) is associated with senile plaques in degenerating regions of Alzheimer's disease brains, where activated microglia are also prominent. We show a functional link between apoJ and activated microglia by demonstrating that exogenous apoJ activates rodent microglia in vivo and in vitro. Intracerebroventricular infusion of purified human plasma apoJ ( approximately 4 microg over 28 days) activated parenchymal microglia to a phenotype characterized by enlarged cell bodies and processes (phosphotyrosine immunostaining). In vitro, primary rat microglia were also activated by apoJ, with changes in morphology and induction of major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) antigen. ApoJ increased the secretion of reactive nitrogen intermediates in a dose-dependent manner (EC(50) 112 nm), which was completely blocked by aminoguanidine (AG), a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor. However, AG did not block the increased secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha by apoJ (EC(50) 55 nm). Microglial activation by apoJ was also blocked by an anti-apoJ monoclonal antibody (G7), and by chemical cleavage of apoJ with 2-nitro-5-thiocyanobenzoate. The mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase and protein kinase C inhibitors PD98059 and H7 inhibited apoJ-mediated induction of reactive nitrogen intermediate secretion from cultured microglia. As a functional measure, apoJ-activated microglia secreted neurotoxic agents in a microglia-neuron co-culture model. We hypothesize that ApoJ contributes to chronic inflammation and neurotoxicity through direct effects on microglia.

The glucocorticoid paradox of caloric restriction in slowing brain aging.

Glucocorticoids have a bimodal effect on cognition, hippocampal pyramidal neurons and long-term potentiation (LTP). Transient increases in glucocorticoids improve performance at spatial memory tasks and facilitate synaptic efficacy, depending on the context. On the other hand, long-term elevations of glucocorticoids are associated with decreased cognitive performance, attenuated synaptic efficacy and neuronal atrophy. Elevation of glucocorticoids during aging is also associated with mild cognitive impairment and hippocampal atrophy. Caloric restriction (CR), a dietary manipulation which extends life-span in rodents, also increases free plasma corticosterone. Recent data suggests that CR attenuates many brain aging changes and increases resistance of neurons to toxins and injury. Thus, a paradox may be considered: if CR causes chronic elevation of glucocorticoids, and if glucocorticoids can increase the risk of neurodegeneration, how can CR be neuroprotective. We suggest that the neuroprotective effects of CR outweigh the deleterious effects of glucocorticoids. The neuroprotective effects of CR that are discussed here include decreased plasma glucose, attenuated free radical generation, alterations of the vasculature, increased expression of heat shock proteins and neurotrophic factors, and attenuation of age-related glial activation.

Neurons, glia, and plasticity in normal brain aging.

Early manifestations of brain aging have received much less attention than the drastic degeneration of AD and MID. During nonpathological changes of normal aging, brain systems differ in the involvement of neuron loss: Spatial learning can become impaired without evidence for neuron loss, whereas eye-blink conditioning deficits are well correlated with Purkinje neuron loss. Glial activation, in particular the increased expression of GFAP, may be a factor in impaired synaptic plasticity. Lastly, I discuss how developmental variations in the numbers of Purkinje cells and ovarian oocytes can be factors in outcomes of aging that are not under strict genetic control.

The genetics of aging.

The genetic analysis of life span has only begun in mammals, invertebrates, such as Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila, and yeast. Even at this primitive stage of the genetic analysis of aging, the physiological observations that rate of metabolism is intimately tied to life span is supported. In many examples from mice to worms to flies to yeast, genetic variants that affect life span also modify metabolism. Insulin signaling regulates life span coordinately with reproduction, metabolism, and free radical protective gene regulation in C. elegans. This may be related to the findings that caloric restriction also regulates mammalian aging, perhaps via the modulation of insulin-like signaling pathways. The nervous system has been implicated as a key tissue where insulin-like signaling and free radical protective pathways regulate life span in C. elegans and Drosophila. Genes that determine the life span could act in neuroendocrine cells in diverse animals. The involvement of insulin-like hormones suggests that the plasticity in life spans evident in animal phylogeny may be due to variation in the timing of release of hormones that control vitality and mortality as well as variation in the response to those hormones. Pedigree analysis of human aging may reveal variations in the orthologs of the insulin pathway genes and coupled pathways that regulate invertebrate aging. Thus, genetic approaches may identify a set of circuits that was established in ancestral metazoans to regulate their longevity.

Vaccination with soluble Abeta oligomers generates toxicity-neutralizing antibodies.

In recent studies of transgenic models of Alzheimer's disease (AD), it has been reported that antibodies to aged beta amyloid peptide 1-42 (Abeta(1-42)) solutions (mixtures of Abeta monomers, oligomers and amyloid fibrils) cause conspicuous reduction of amyloid plaques and neurological improvement. In some cases, however, neurological improvement has been independent of obvious plaque reduction, and it has been suggested that immunization might neutralize soluble, non-fibrillar forms of Abeta. It is now known that Abeta toxicity resides not only in fibrils, but also in soluble protofibrils and oligomers. The current study has investigated the immune response to low doses of Abeta(1-42) oligomers and the characteristics of the antibodies they induce. Rabbits that were injected with Abeta(1-42) solutions containing only monomers and oligomers produced antibodies that preferentially bound to assembled forms of Abeta in immunoblots and in physiological solutions. The antibodies have proven useful for assays that can detect inhibitors of oligomer formation, for immunofluorescence localization of cell-attached oligomers to receptor-like puncta, and for immunoblots that show the presence of SDS-stable oligomers in Alzheimer's brain tissue. The antibodies, moreover, were found to neutralize the toxicity of soluble oligomers in cell culture. Results support the hypothesis that immunizations of transgenic mice derive therapeutic benefit from the immuno-neutralization of soluble Abeta-derived toxins. Analogous immuno-neutralization of oligomers in humans may be a key in AD vaccines.

History and prospects: symposium on organisms with slow aging.

We discuss the background concepts which lead to this issue of Experimental Gerontology. On one hand, genetic and molecular studies of short-lived worms, flies, and mice are yielding remarkable discoveries on gene systems that regulate the life span. On the other hand, little is known about the nature of aging in other vertebrates, with life spans extending into the human range or beyond the record 122y human life span, which may have aging processes that are so slow as to be 'negligible'. We point out that organisms with these vastly different life spans have essentially identical cells within an evolutionary group and that the cellular tool kit that existed by 600 million years ago allowed the evolution of life spans ranging up to one million-fold difference in length. The possibility of negligible senescence has not been widely discussed, and may be in conflict with mathematical deductions from population genetics theory. We propose minimal criteria for the lack of senescence: (1) no observable increase in age-specific mortality rate or decrease in reproduction rate after sexual maturity; and (2) no observable age-related decline in physiological capacity or disease resistance. We also introduce some of the species discussed in subsequent chapters which are unfamiliar models to most biomedical researchers.

Targeting small Abeta oligomers: the solution to an Alzheimer's disease conundrum?

Amyloid beta (Abeta) is a small self-aggregating peptide produced at low levels by normal brain metabolism. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), self-aggregation of Abeta becomes rampant, manifested most strikingly as the amyloid fibrils of senile plaques. Because fibrils can kill neurons in culture, it has been argued that fibrils initiate the neurodegenerative cascades of AD. An emerging and different view, however, is that fibrils are not the only toxic form of Abeta, and perhaps not the neurotoxin that is most relevant to AD: small oligomers and protofibrils also have potent neurological activity. Immuno-neutralization of soluble Abeta-derived toxins might be the key to optimizing AD vaccines that are now on the horizon.

Neuroendocrine and pharmacological manipulations to assess how caloric restriction increases life span.

As part of an effort to review current understanding of the mechanisms by which caloric restriction (CR) extends maximum life span, the authors of the present review were requested to develop a list of key issues concerning the potential role of neuroendocrine systems in mediating these effects. It has long been hypothesized that failure of specific neuroendocrine functions during aging leads to key age-related systemic and physiological failures, and more recently it has been postulated that physiological neuroendocrine responses to CR may increase life span. However, although the acute neuroendocrine responses to fasting have been well studied, it is not clear that these responses are necessarily identical to those observed in response to the chronic moderate (30% to 50% reduction) CR that increases maximum life span. Therefore the recommendations of this panel fall into two categories. First, further characterization of neuroendocrine responses to CR over the entire life span is needed. Second, rigorous interventional studies are needed to test the extent to which neuroendocrine responses to CR mediate the effects of CR on life span, or alternatively if CR protects the function of essential neuroendocrine cells whose impairment reduces life span. Complementary studies using rodent models, nonhuman primates, and humans will be essential to assess the generality of elucidated mechanisms, and to determine if such mechanisms might apply to humans.