Noninvasive monitoring of steroid hormone production and activity of zoo-housed banteng (Bos javanicus).

This study describes patterns of steroid hormone production and activity for banteng (Bos javanicus), an endangered member of the Bovidae family. Using validated assays, concentrations of fecal progestagens, androgens, and glucocorticoids were quantified for four females and one male at the Saint Louis Zoo. A commercial activity monitor was also validated for assessing movement. The devices were then used to characterize activity in relation to season, reproductive status, and fecal steroid concentrations. General linear mixed models assessed differences in activity and steroid concentrations among individuals, in regards to reproductive status and season. Ovulatory cycle patterns, changes in activity around estrus and parturition, and events correlated with increased glucocorticoid production were also documented. Cycle lengths were 24.7 ± 0.4 days, and cycle lengths varied among individuals. Females cycled year-round, but luteal progestagen concentrations, along with glucocorticoids and male androgens, increased during the summer. Activity also increased in the summer. Progestagen concentrations were greater in pregnant females, and the gestation length of one pregnancy was 254 days. Pregnant females were less active overall, but activity increased the day before parturition. Activity was also greater preceding the onset of the luteal phase. The majority of glucocorticoid concentrations were in the range of baseline concentrations. However, a small number of elevated concentrations were correlated with husbandry and veterinary events. This study is the first to validate non-invasive methods for monitoring reproduction, welfare, and activity of banteng. Our results may contribute to the improved management of captive populations.

COMPARISON OF PROPOFOL CONSTANT RATE INFUSION AND ISOFLURANE FOR MAINTENANCE OF ANESTHESIA IN SPEKE'S GAZELLE, GAZELLA SPEKEI.

The aims of this study were to determine if a propofol constant rate infusion (CRI) in Speke's gazelle, Gazella spekei, would serve as an effective alternative maintenance anesthetic, result in shorter recovery times, and improve anesthetic recovery quality when compared with isoflurane. Eight adult gazelle were enrolled in this complete crossover study with a minimum 3-wk washout period. All gazelle were induced with 10 mg/kg intravenous propofol and maintained with either propofol CRI (0.4 mg/kg/min) or isoflurane (1-3%) for 45 min. Animals were monitored for anesthetic depth and physiologic variables including heart and respiratory rates, oxygen saturation, end-tidal carbon dioxide, indirect blood pressure, and temperature every 5 min. Blood gas samples were analyzed within the first 10 min following anesthetic induction and within the last 10 min of anesthesia. Recovery times were recorded. Recovery quality was classified by a residual ataxia grading scale. Seven gazelle completed the study by undergoing both anesthetic treatments; one female (12 yr old) developed complications 2 days after isoflurane anesthesia, consisting of seizures, azotemia, leukocytosis, hypocalcemia, and hypomagnesemia but was treated successfully. Propofol anesthesia resulted in lower respiratory rates compared with isoflurane and a decrease in respiratory rate over time. Propofol CRI maintained blood pressure values closer to physiologically normal ranges compared with isoflurane for 45 min of anesthesia. Recovery times were comparable between propofol and isoflurane treatments. While individuals receiving propofol had higher residual ataxia scores compared with individuals receiving isoflurane, differences were not clinically important. This study demonstrated that propofol CRI (0.4 mg/kg/min) is an effective maintenance anesthetic agent in healthy adult Speke's gazelle for noninvasive procedures with endotracheal intubation and intermittent positive pressure ventilation.

Characterization of estrous cycles and pregnancy in Somali wild asses (Equus africanus somaliensis) through fecal hormone analyses.

Although reproduction in the domestic horse has been well described, less is known about reproduction in wild equids. This study describes endocrine patterns associated with estrous cycles and pregnancy for Somali wild asses (Equus africanus somaliensis), an endangered African equid. Fecal samples were collected three times per week for more than 2 years from five female Somali wild asses at the Saint Louis Zoo; progestagen and estrogen metabolites were quantified using commercially available immunoassays. Progestagen analysis indicated that cycle lengths were 27.2 ± 1.2 days and females cycled throughout the year. Progestagen levels during early pregnancy were low and not sustained above baseline until approximately 40 weeks prior to partition. Concentrations increased markedly around 16 weeks prior to delivery and peaked 2-3 weeks before birth. Fecal estrogen levels also increased significantly starting 40-45 weeks before parturition and reached their maximal value approximately 20 weeks prior to birth. Neither foal heat nor lactational suppression of estrus was observed, and females cycled within 45 days after delivery. These data are the first to describe the reproductive physiology of Somali wild asses. As the species faces increasing threats in the wild, this information may support conservation efforts by assisting with ex situ breeding programs.

MANAGEMENT OF TOXIC MASTITIS IN A BABIRUSA (BABYROUSA CELEBENSIS).

A 1 yr 8 mo-old, previously healthy, primiparous female babirusa (Babyrousa celebensis) presented acutely recumbent and minimally responsive approximately 36 hr after giving birth to a single piglet. Toxic mastitis was diagnosed based on physical examination and laboratory results. The mammary tissue was firm, discolored, and produced negligible amounts of milk. All of the teats were eventually affected, resulting in the inability to provide adequate nutrition to the piglet. Although toxic mastitis has a poor prognosis in domestic sows, this babirusa recovered completely with aggressive management, including antibiotics and supportive care.

An archive of longitudinal recordings of the vocalizations of adult Gombe chimpanzees.

Studies of chimpanzee vocal communication provide valuable insights into the evolution of communication in complex societies, and also comparative data for understanding the evolution of human language. One particularly valuable dataset of recordings from free-living chimpanzees was collected by Frans X. Plooij and the late Hetty van de Rijt-Plooij at Gombe National Park, Tanzania (1971-73). These audio specimens, which have not yet been analysed, total over 10 h on 28 tapes, including 7 tapes focusing on adult individuals with a total of 605 recordings. In 2014 the first part of that collection of audio specimens covering the vocalizations of the immature Gombe chimpanzees was made available. The data package described here covers the vocalizations of the adult chimpanzees. We expect these recordings will prove useful for studies on topics including referential signalling and the emergence of dialects. The digitized sound recordings were stored in the Macaulay Library and the Dryad Repository. In addition, the original notes on the contexts of the calls were translated and transcribed from Dutch into English.

Longitudinal recordings of the vocalizations of immature Gombe chimpanzees for developmental studies.

Many researchers are interested in chimpanzee vocal communication, both as an important aspect of chimpanzee social behavior and as a source of insights into the evolution of human language. Nonetheless, very little is known about how chimpanzee vocal communication develops from infancy to adulthood. The largest dataset of audiorecordings from free-living immature chimpanzees was collected by the late Hetty van de Rijt-Plooij and Frans X. Plooij at Gombe National Park, Tanzania (1971-1973). These recordings have not yet been analysed. Therefore, the most extensive effort to study the development of chimpanzee vocalizations remains unfinished. The audiospecimens total over 10 h on 28 tapes, including 20 tapes focusing on 17 specific immature individuals with a total of 1,136 recordings. In order to make this dataset available to more researchers, the analogue sound recordings were digitized and stored in the Macaulay Library and the Dryad Repository. In addition, the original notes on the contexts of the calls were translated and transcribed from Dutch into English.

Kinetics of viral loads and genotypic analysis of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus-1 infection in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) can cause fatal hemorrhagic disease in juvenile Asian elephants (Elphas maximus); however, sporadic shedding of virus in trunk washes collected from healthy elephants also has been detected. Data regarding the relationship of viral loads in blood compared with trunk washes are lacking, and questions about whether elephants can undergo multiple infections with EEHVs have not been addressed previously. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to determine the kinetics of EEHV1 loads, and genotypic analysis was performed on EEHV1 DNA detected in various fluid samples obtained from five Asian elephants that survived detectable EEHV1 DNAemia on at least two separate occasions. In three elephants displaying clinical signs of illness, preclinical EEHV1 DNAemia was detectable, and peak whole-blood viral loads occurred 3-8 days after the onset of clinical signs. In two elephants with EEHV1 DNAemia that persisted for 7-21 days, no clinical signs of illness were observed. Detection of EEHV1 DNA in trunk washes peaked approximately 21 days after DNAemia, and viral genotypes detected during DNAemia matched those detected in subsequent trunk washes from the same elephant. In each of the five elephants, two distinct EEHV1 genotypes were identified in whole blood and trunk washes at different time points. In each case, these genotypes represented both an EEHV1A and an EEHV1B subtype. These data suggest that knowledge of viral loads could be useful for the management of elephants before or during clinical illness. Furthermore, sequential infection with both EEHV1 subtypes occurs in Asian elephants, suggesting that they do not elicit cross-protective sterilizing immunity. These data will be useful to individuals involved in the husbandry and clinical care of Asian elephants.

Affiliative and aggressive behavior in a group of female Somali wild ass (Equus africanus somalicus).

We observed a group of three young female Somali wild asses to develop an ethogram of social behavior in the first phase of a longer term study of social, sexual, and maternal/infant behavior. The most unexpected finding was the frequency and extent of aggressive interactions, which included Charge, Drive, Neck Wrestle, Head Butt, and Body Slam, behaviors previously reported only for males of other equid species. The overall frequency of aggressive behavior was higher than that of affiliative behavior (84±16.5 vs. 32±5.5, P=0.03), yet no injuries occurred. The dyadic directionality of aggressive behavior suggested a dominance hierarchy, a feature not previously reported for either wild ass or domestic donkeys. The aggression observed may be an accurate representation of the behavior of this species, or their relatively young ages, or their recent transfer from their natal group through quarantine and into a new enclosure may have heightened agonistic tendencies. Further studies will determine whether with time their aggressive behavior becomes more intense or dissipates with maturity.

Melengestrol acetate implant contraception in addax (Addax Nasomaculatus) and Arabian oryx (Oryx Leucoryx).

Melengestrol acetate (MGA) implants were used for contraception in three addax and three Arabian oryx females housed at the Saint Louis Zoo. Serum estradiol and progesterone or fecal estrogen and progestin analysis and ultrasonography of reproductive tracts were used for monitoring changes before, during, and after MGA treatment. Follicular development and irregular uterine fluid accumulation were detected in all females during MGA treatment. Although housed with an intact male for all or most of the contraceptive period, no pregnancies occurred.One female addax may have ovulated, based on sustained elevated progesterone levels, and another showed continued follicle development, as seen by fluctuating estradiol concentrations. Reversibility was documented in two of the three addax that resumed reproductive cycles post-MGA-implant removal, whereas the third, a peripubertal female, did not cycle before, during, or after treatment. Addax females were lost to further follow-up after transfer to another institution, so the possibility of subsequent pregnancies is not known.All three Arabian oryx ovulated during the initial MGA treatment, but two of the three females had implants past the typical 2-year efficacy period. They had regular ovulatory cycles after implant removal, with mean cycle length of 27.5+/-1.5 days and mean luteal phase duration of 15.2+/-0.7 days. Reversibility was further shown in all three oryx by pregnancies after placement with a male approximately 2 years after MGA implant removal. Two produced healthy calves, but the third died owing to an unrelated terminal illness in the mother. Zoo Biol 26:299-310, 2007. (c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.