Succession of bacterial and fungal communities within biofilms of a chlorinated drinking water distribution system.

Understanding the temporal dynamics of multi-species biofilms in Drinking Water Distribution Systems (DWDS) is essential to ensure safe, high quality water reaches consumers after it passes through these high surface area reactors. This research studied the succession characteristics of fungal and bacterial communities under controlled environmental conditions fully representative of operational DWDS. Microbial communities were observed to increase in complexity after one month of biofilm development but they did not reach stability after three months. Changes in cell numbers were faster at the start of biofilm formation and tended to decrease over time, despite the continuing changes in bacterial community composition. Fungal diversity was markedly less than bacterial diversity and had a lag in responding to temporal dynamics. A core-mixed community of bacteria including Pseudomonas, Massillia and Sphingomonas and the fungi Acremonium and Neocosmopora were present constantly and consistently in the biofilms over time and conditions studied. Monitoring and managing biofilms and such ubiquitous core microbial communities are key control strategies to ensuring the delivery of safe drinking water via the current ageing DWDS infrastructure.

Biofilm structures (EPS and bacterial communities) in drinking water distribution systems are conditioned by hydraulics and influence discolouration.

High-quality drinking water from treatment works is degraded during transport to customer taps through the Drinking Water Distribution System (DWDS). Interactions occurring at the pipe wall-water interface are central to this degradation and are often dominated by complex microbial biofilms that are not well understood. This study uses novel application of confocal microscopy techniques to quantify the composition of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and cells of DWDS biofilms together with concurrent evaluation of the bacterial community. An internationally unique, full-scale, experimental DWDS facility was used to investigate the impact of three different hydraulic patterns upon biofilms and subsequently assess their response to increases in shear stress, linking biofilms to water quality impacts such as discolouration. Greater flow variation during growth was associated with increased cell quantity but was inversely related to EPS-to-cell volume ratios and bacterial diversity. Discolouration was caused and EPS was mobilised during flushing of all conditions. Ultimately, biofilms developed under low-varied flow conditions had lowest amounts of biomass, the greatest EPS volumes per cell and the lowest discolouration response. This research shows that the interactions between hydraulics and biofilm physical and community structures are complex but critical to managing biofilms within ageing DWDS infrastructure to limit water quality degradation and protect public health.

Genetic and morphological features of human iPSC-derived neurons with chromosome 15q11.2 (BP1-BP2) deletions.

BACKGROUND: Copy number variation on chromosome 15q11.2 (BP1-BP2) causes deletion of CYFIP1, NIPA1, NIPA2 and TUBGCP5; it also affects brain structure and elevates risk for several neurodevelopmental disorders that are associated with dendritic spine abnormalities. In rodents, altered cyfip1 expression changes dendritic spine morphology, motivating analyses of human neuronal cells derived from iPSCs (iPSC-neurons). METHODS: iPSCs were generated from a mother and her offspring, both carrying the 15q11.2 (BP1-BP2) deletion, and a non-deletion control. Gene expression in the deletion region was estimated using quantitative real-time PCR assays. Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) and iPSC-neurons were characterized using immunocytochemistry. RESULTS: CYFIP1, NIPA1, NIPA2 and TUBGCP5 gene expression was lower in iPSCs, NPCs and iPSC-neurons from the mother and her offspring in relation to control cells. CYFIP1 and PSD95 protein levels were lower in iPSC-neurons derived from the CNV bearing individuals using Western blot analysis. At 10 weeks post-differentiation, iPSC-neurons appeared to show dendritic spines and qualitative analysis suggested that dendritic morphology was altered in 15q11.2 deletion subjects compared with control cells. CONCLUSIONS: The 15q11.2 (BP1-BP2) deletion is associated with reduced expression of four genes in iPSC-derived neuronal cells; it may also be associated altered iPSC-neuron dendritic morphology.

Altered parvalbumin basket cell inputs in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of schizophrenia subjects.

Cortical circuitry dysfunction in schizophrenia has been studied at many different levels of resolution, but not at the most basic unit of network organization--synaptic inputs. Multi-label electron or confocal light microscopy is required to examine specific types of synaptic inputs, and application of these methods to quantitatively study disease-related changes in human postmortem tissue has not been feasible for technical reasons. We recently developed a multi-label confocal light microscopic approach that makes possible the systematic identification and quantification of synaptic inputs, and of the relative levels of proteins localized to these inputs, in human postmortem tissue. We applied this approach to quantify parvalbumin basket cell (PVBC) inputs in area 9 of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex from schizophrenia and matched comparison subjects. Tissue sections were triple-labeled for the 65 kD isoform of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65), PV and the GABA(A) receptor α1 subunit. PVBC axonal boutons were defined as PV/GAD65 dual-labeled puncta, and PVBC inputs were defined as a PVBC bouton that overlapped a GABA(A) receptor α1 subunit punctum. The density of PVBC inputs was unchanged in subjects with schizophrenia, but levels of PV protein were lower in PVBC boutons. In concert with prior reports, these findings indicate that PVBC dysfunction in schizophrenia reflects molecular and not structural alterations in these cells and their axon terminals.

JNK modulates FOXO3a for the expression of the mitochondrial death and mitophagy marker BNIP3 in pathological hypertrophy and in heart failure.

Bcl-2 E1B 19-KDa interacting protein 3 (BNIP3) is a mitochondrial death and mitophagy marker, which is involved in inducing cardiac remodeling post myocardial infarction. In this study, we show that BNIP3 expression increases in stressed cardiomyocytes in vitro and in response to pressure overload in vivo, and that its transcription is directly related to JNK activity. BNIP3 expression gradually increased in the first weeks after pressure overload and peaked at the heart failure stage. Ultrastructurally, the mitochondrial area was inversely proportional to BNIP3 expression. Both JNK and AKT activities increased with pressure overload; however, JNK signaling dominated over AKT signaling for the activation of the transcription factor FOXO3a and for the transcription of its effector, BNIP3. 3-methyladenine attenuated JNK signaling and significantly decreased BNIP3 expression and reversed cardiac remodeling in heart failure. Ultrastructurally, the mitochondrial area was significantly increased in the 3-methyladenine group compared with placebo. Moreover, adenoviral gene delivery of dominant negative JNK in a rat model of pressure overload hypertrophy abolished the increase in BNIP3 expression in response to pressure overload. These results suggest that JNK signaling is a critical modulator of the transcription factor FOXO3a driving the expression of its effector, BNIP3, in heart failure and that JNK, through BNIP3, induces mitochondrial apoptosis and mitophagy.

Cardiac gene therapy in large animals: bridge from bench to bedside.

Several clinical trials are evaluating gene transfer as a therapeutic approach to treat cardiac diseases. Although it has just started on the path to clinical application, recent advances in gene delivery technologies with increasing knowledge of underlying mechanisms raise great expectations for the cardiac gene therapy. Although in vivo experiments using small animals provide the therapeutic potential of gene transfer, there exist many fundamental differences between the small animal and the human hearts. Before applying the therapy to clinical patients, large animal studies are a prerequisite to validate the efficacy in an animal model more relevant to the human heart. Several key factors including vector type, injected dose, delivery method and targeted cardiac disease are all important factors that determine the therapeutic efficacy. Selecting the most optimal combination of these factors is essential for successful gene therapy. In addition to the efficacy, safety profiles need to be addressed as well. In this regard, large animal studies are best suited for comprehensive evaluation at the preclinical stages of therapeutic development to ensure safe and effective gene transfer. As the cardiac gene therapy expands its potential, large animal studies will become more important to bridge the bench side knowledge to the clinical arena.

Relationship of cannabinoid CB1 receptor and cholecystokinin immunoreactivity in monkey dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Exposure to cannabis impairs cognitive functions reliant on the circuitry of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and increases the risk of schizophrenia. The actions of cannabis are mediated via the brain cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R), which in rodents is heavily localized to the axon terminals of cortical GABA basket neurons that contain cholecystokinin (CCK). Differences in the laminar distribution of CB1R-immunoreactive (IR) axons have been reported between rodent and monkey neocortex, suggesting that the cell type(s) containing CB1Rs, and the synaptic targets of CB1R-IR axon terminals, may differ across species; however, neither the relationship of CB1Rs to CCK-containing interneurons, nor the postsynaptic targets of CB1R and CCK axon terminals, have been examined in primate DLPFC. Consequently, we compared the distribution patterns of CB1R- and CCK-IR structures, determined the proportions of CB1R and CCK neurons that were dual-labeled, and identified the synaptic types and postsynaptic targets of CB1R- and CCK-IR axon terminals in macaque monkey DLPFC. By light microscopy, CB1R- and CCK-IR axons exhibited a similar laminar distribution, with their greatest densities in layer 4. Dual-label fluorescence experiments demonstrated that 91% of CB1R-IR neurons were immunopositive for CCK, whereas only 51% of CCK-IR neurons were immunopositive for CB1R. By electron microscopy, all synapses formed by CB1R-IR axon terminals were symmetric, whereas CCK-IR axon terminals formed both symmetric (88%) and asymmetric (12%) synapses. The primary postsynaptic target of both CB1R- and CCK-IR axon terminals forming symmetric synapses was dendritic shafts (81-88%), with the remainder targeting cell bodies or dendritic spines. Thus, despite species differences in laminar distribution, CB1Rs are principally localized to CCK basket neuron axons in both rodent neocortex and monkey DLPFC. These axons target the perisomatic region of pyramidal neurons, providing a potential anatomical substrate for the impaired function of the DLPFC associated with cannabis use and schizophrenia.

Effect of hydration state on testosterone and cortisol responses to training-intensity exercise in collegiate runners.

Exercise intensity powerfully influences testosterone, cortisol, and testosterone : cortisol ratio (T:C) responses to endurance exercise. Hydration state may also modulate these hormones, and therefore may alter the anabolic/catabolic balance in response to endurance exercise and training. This study examined the effect of running intensity on testosterone, cortisol, and T : C when exercise was initiated in a hypohydrated state. Nine male collegiate runners (age = 20 +/- 0 y, height = 178 +/- 2 cm, mass = 67.0 +/- 1.8 kg, body fat % = 9.8 +/- 0.7 %, V.O2max = 65.7 +/- 1.1 ml.kg (-1).min (-1)) completed four 10-min treadmill runs differing in pre-exercise hydration status (euhydrated, or hypohydrated by 5 % of body mass) and exercise intensity (70 % or 85 % V.O2max). Body mass, urine osmolality, and urine-specific gravity documented fluid balance; blood samples drawn pre-, immediately post-, and 20 min post-exercise were analyzed for testosterone, cortisol, and T : C. Except for heart rate measured during the 70 % V.O2max trials, heart rate, V.O2, and plasma lactate were similar between euhydrated and hypohydrated conditions for a given intensity, suggesting hypohydration did not measurably increase the physiological stress of the exercise bouts. Furthermore, hydration state had no measurable effect on testosterone concentrations before, during, or after exercise at either intensity. Regardless of exercise intensity, cortisol concentrations were greater during hypohydration than euhydration pre-exercise and 20 min post-exercise. Additionally, T : C was significantly lower 20 min post-exercise at 70 % V.O2max when subjects were initially hypohydrated (T : C = 0.055) versus euhydrated (T : C = 0.072). These findings suggest that depending on exercise intensity, T : C may be altered by hydration state, therefore influencing the balance between anabolism and catabolism in response to running exercise performed at typical training intensities.

Reactivation of latent human cytomegalovirus in CD14(+) monocytes is differentiation dependent.

We have previously demonstrated reactivation of latent human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in myeloid lineage cells obtained from healthy donors. Virus was obtained from allogenically stimulated monocyte-derived macrophages (Allo-MDM), but not from macrophages differentiated by mitogenic stimulation (ConA-MDM). In the present study, the cellular and cytokine components essential for HCMV replication and reactivation were examined in Allo-MDM. The importance of both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the generation of HCMV-permissive Allo-MDM was demonstrated by negative selection or blocking experiments using antibodies directed against both HLA class I and HLA class II molecules. Interestingly, contact of monocytes with CD4 or CD8 T cells was not essential for reactivation of HCMV, since virus was observed in macrophages derived from CD14(+) monocytes stimulated by supernatants produced by allogeneic stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Examination of the cytokines produced in Allo-MDM and ConA-MDM cultures indicated a significant difference in the kinetics of production and quantity of these factors. Further examination of the cytokines essential for the generation of HCMV-permissive Allo-MDM identified gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) but not interleukin-1 or -2, tumor necrosis factor alpha, or granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor as critical components in the generation of these macrophages. In addition, although IFN-gamma was crucial for reactivation of latent HCMV, addition of IFN-gamma to unstimulated macrophage cultures was insufficient to reactivate virus. Thus, this study characterizes two distinct monocyte-derived cell types which can be distinguished by their ability to reactivate and support HCMV replication and identifies the critical importance of IFN-gamma in the reactivation of HCMV.

The Sar1 GTPase coordinates biosynthetic cargo selection with endoplasmic reticulum export site assembly.

Cargo selection and export from the endoplasmic reticulum is mediated by the COPII coat machinery that includes the small GTPase Sar1 and the Sec23/24 and Sec13/31 complexes. We have analyzed the sequential events regulated by purified Sar1 and COPII coat complexes during synchronized export of cargo from the ER in vitro. We find that activation of Sar1 alone, in the absence of other cytosolic components, leads to the formation of ER-derived tubular domains that resemble ER transitional elements that initiate cargo selection. These Sar1-generated tubular domains were shown to be transient, functional intermediates in ER to Golgi transport in vitro. By following cargo export in live cells, we show that ER export in vivo is also characterized by the formation of dynamic tubular structures. Our results demonstrate an unanticipated and novel role for Sar1 in linking cargo selection with ER morphogenesis through the generation of transitional tubular ER export sites.

Evidence that dynamin-2 functions as a signal-transducing GTPase.

The role of dynamin GTPases in the regulation of receptor-mediated endocytosis is well established. Here, we present new evidence that the ubiquitously expressed isoform dynamin-2 (dyn2) can also function in a signal transduction pathway(s). A 200-fold overexpression of dyn1, the 70% identical neuronal isoform, has no effect. Our data suggest that dyn2 can act as a signal transducing GTPase affecting transcriptional regulation.

Suicide awareness at the elementary school level.

1. Suicidal behavior is a real and growing problem in elementary school-age children. 2. Childhood suicides often are mistaken for accidents. 3. Knowledge is an effective tool in preventing suicides. It is imperative that suicide awareness and orientation for all school staff and parents be initiated at the elementary school level.

Traffic pattern of cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator through the early exocytic pathway.

The pathway of transport of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) through the early exocytic pathway has not been examined. In contrast to most membrane proteins that are concentrated during export from the ER and therefore readily detectable at elevated levels in pre-Golgi intermediates and Golgi compartments, wild-type CFTR could not be detected in these compartments using deconvolution immunofluorescence microscopy. To determine the basis for this unusual feature, we analyzed CFTR localization using quantitative immunoelectron microscopy (IEM). We found that wild-type CFTR is present in pre-Golgi compartments and peripheral tubular elements associated with the cis and trans faces of the Golgi stack, albeit at a concentration 2-fold lower than that found in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). delta F508 CFTR, a mutant form that is not efficiently delivered to the cell surface and the most common mutation in cystic fibrosis, could also be detected at a reduced concentration in pre-Golgi intermediates and peripheral cis Golgi elements, but not in post-Golgi compartments. Our results suggest that the low level of wild-type CFTR in the Golgi region reflects a limiting step in selective recruitment by the ER export machinery, an event that is largely deficient in delta F508. We raise the possibility that novel modes of selective anterograde and retrograde traffic between the ER and the Golgi may serve to regulate CFTR function in the early secretory compartments.

Long-term infection and transformation of dermal microvascular endothelial cells by human herpesvirus 8.

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8) infects Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) spindle cells in situ, as well as the lesional endothelial cells considered to be spindle cell precursors. The HHV8 genome contains several oncogenes, suggesting that infection of endothelial and spindle cells could induce cellular transformation and tumorigenesis and promote the formation of KS lesions. To investigate the potential of HHV8 infection of endothelial cells to contribute to the development of KS, we have developed an in vitro model utilizing dermal microvascular endothelial cells that support significant HHV8 infection. In contrast to existing in vitro systems used to study HHV8 pathogenesis, the majority of dermal endothelial cells are infected with HHV8 and the viral genome is maintained indefinitely. Infection is predominantly latent, with a small percentage of cells supporting lytic replication, and latency is responsive to lytic induction stimuli. Infected endothelial cells develop a spindle shape resembling that of KS lesional cells and show characteristics of a transformed phenotype, including loss of contact inhibition and acquisition of anchorage-independent growth. These results describe a relevant model system in which to study virus-host interactions in vitro and demonstrate the ability of HHV8 to induce phenotypic changes in infected endothelial cells that resemble characteristics of KS spindle cells in vivo. Thus, our results are consistent with a direct role for HHV8 in the pathogenesis of KS.

Growth of human cytomegalovirus in primary macrophages.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a major human pathogen that causes considerable disease among immunocompromised individuals. A primary infection results in life-long persistence of the virus in a latent form. HCMV is known to be transferred by blood products, bone marrow, and solid organs, but the cell type that carries the latent infection has been difficult to identify. We have recently demonstrated reactivation of latent HCMV in allogeneically stimulated monocyte-derived macrophages (Allo-MDM). Reactivation occurred only in macrophages produced by allogeneic but not mitogenic stimulation. The presence of dendritic cell markers on some Allo-MDM cells suggested that these macrophages were related to dendritic cells. However, dendritic cells obtained by stimulation of monocytes with interleukin-4 (IL-4) and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) were not permissive for HCMV infection. The cellular and cytokine components which are essential for HCMV replication and reactivation of virus were also examined in Allo-MDM. The importance of both CD4- or CD8-positive T cells in the generation of HCMV permissive Allo-MDM was demonstrated by negative selection or blocking experiments using antibodies directed against both HLA class I and HLA class II molecules. Examination of the cytokines essential for the generation of HCMV permissive Allo-MDM identified gamma-interferon (IFN-gamma, but not IL-1, IL-2, tumor necrosis factor alpha, or GM-CSF as critical components in the generation of these macrophages. However, addition of IFN-gamma to unstimulated macrophage cultures was insufficient to reactivate virus. These results indicate the importance of a specific moncyte stimulus in the generation of a unique HCMV permissive macrophage phenotype as well as why virus is commonly reactivated in transplant patients.

Steady-state plasma membrane expression of human cytomegalovirus gB is determined by the phosphorylation state of Ser900.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection of an astrocytoma cell line (U373) or human fibroblast (HF) cells results in a differential cell distribution of the major envelope glycoprotein gB (UL55). This 906-amino-acid type I glycoprotein contains an extracellular domain with a signal sequence, a transmembrane domain, and a 135-amino-acid cytoplasmic tail with a consensus casein kinase II (CKII) site located at Ser900. Since phosphorylation of proteins in the secretory pathway is an important determinant of intracellular trafficking, the state of gB phosphorylation in U373 and HF cells was examined. Analysis of cells expressing wild-type gB and gB with site-specific mutations indicated that the glycoprotein was equally phosphorylated at a single site, Ser900, in both U373 and HF cells. To assess the effect of charge on gB surface expression in U373 cells, Ser900 was replaced with an aspartate (Asp) or alanine (Ala) residue to mimic the phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated states, respectively. Expression of the Asp but not the Ala gB mutation resulted in an increase in the steady-state expression of gB at the plasma membrane (PM) in U373 cells. In addition, treatment of U373 cells with the phosphatase inhibitor tautomycin resulted in the accumulation of gB at the PM. Interestingly, the addition of a charge at Ser900 trapped gB in a low-level cycling pathway at the PM, preventing trafficking of the protein to the trans-Golgi network or other intracellular compartments. Therefore, these results suggest that a tautomycin-sensitive phosphatase regulates cell-specific PM retrieval of gB to intracellular compartments.

Assessment of clinical performance during simulated crises using both technical and behavioral ratings.

BACKGROUND: Techniques are needed to assess anesthesiologists' performance when responding to critical events. Patient simulators allow presentation of similar crisis situations to different clinicians. This study evaluated ratings of performance, and the interrater variability of the ratings, made by multiple independent observers viewing videotapes of simulated crises. METHODS: Raters scored the videotapes of 14 different teams that were managing two scenarios: malignant hyperthermia (MH) and cardiac arrest. Technical performance and crisis management behaviors were rated. Technical ratings could range from 0.0 to 1.0 based on scenario-specific checklists of appropriate actions. Ratings of 12 crisis management behaviors were made using a five-point ordinal scale. Several statistical assessments of interrater variability were applied. RESULTS: Technical ratings were high for most teams in both scenarios (0.78 +/- 0.08 for MH, 0.83 +/- 0.06 for cardiac arrest). Ratings of crisis management behavior varied, with some teams rated as minimally acceptable or poor (28% for MH, 14% for cardiac arrest). The agreement between raters was fair to excellent, depending on the item rated and the statistical test used. CONCLUSIONS: Both technical and behavioral performance can be assessed from videotapes of simulations. The behavioral rating system can be improved; one particular difficulty was aggregating a single rating for a behavior that fluctuated over time. These performance assessment tools might be useful for educational research or for tracking a resident's progress. The rating system needs more refinement before it can be used to assess clinical competence for residency graduation or board certification.

Testing internal consistency and construct validity during evaluation of performance in a patient simulator.

UNLABELLED: The primary goal of this study was to test the items in a rating system developed to evaluate anesthesiologists' performance in a simulated patient environment. A secondary goal was to determine whether the test scores could discriminate between resident and staff anesthesiologists. Two 5-item clinical scenarios included patient evaluation and induction and maintenance of anesthesia. Rating scales were no response to the problem (score = 0), compensating intervention (score = 1), and corrective treatment (score = 2). Internal consistency was estimated using Cronbach's coefficient alpha. Scores between groups were compared using the Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel test. Subjects consisted of 8 anesthesiology residents and 17 university clinical faculty. The Cronbach's coefficient alpha was 0.27 for Scenario A and 0.28 for Scenario B. Two items in each scenario markedly decreased internal consistency. When these four items were eliminated, Cronbach's coefficient alpha for the remaining six items was 0.66. Faculty anesthesiologists scored higher than residents on all six items (P < 0.001). A patient simulator-based evaluation process with acceptable reliability was developed. IMPLICATIONS: The reliability of anesthesia clinical performance in a patient simulation environment was assessed in this study. Of 10 items, 4 were poor in the evaluation process. When these items were removed, the reliability of the instrument improved to a level consistent with other studies. Because faculty scored higher than resident anesthesiologists, the instrument also showed discriminant validity.

Human cytomegalovirus persistently infects aortic endothelial cells.

Endothelial cells (EC) have been implicated as constituting an important cell type in the pathogenesis of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Microvascular and macrovascular EC exhibit different biochemical and functional properties depending on the organ of origin. Phenotypic differences between microvascular and macrovascular EC may alter the ability of these cells to support HCMV replication. In this study, we compared the replication of HCMV in primary macrovascular aortic EC (AEC) with that in brain microvascular EC (BMVEC). An examination of IE72, pp65, and gB viral antigen expression in BMVEC and AEC by immunoflourescence revealed similar frequencies of infected cells. Intracellular production of virus was 3 log units greater in BMVEC than in AEC, while equal quantities of extracellular virus were produced in both cell types. HCMV infection of BMVEC resulted in rapid cellular lysis, while the virus was nonlytic and continuously released from HCMV-infected AEC for the life span of the culture. An examination of infected cells by electron microscopy revealed the formation of abundant nucleocapsids in both AEC and BMVEC. However, significant amounts of mature viral particles were only detected in the cytoplasm of BMVEC. These observations indicate that levels of HCMV replication in EC obtained from different organs are distinct and suggest that persistently infected AEC may serve as a reservoir of virus.

Reactivation of latent human cytomegalovirus by allogeneic stimulation of blood cells from healthy donors.

Reactivation of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) results in severe disease in AIDS patients and immunocompromised patients receiving blood transfusions or organ or bone marrow grafts. Although the site of HCMV latency is unknown, blood cells have been implicated as a viral reservoir. In this study, we demonstrate HCMV reactivation in vitro from seven consecutive healthy donors through allogeneic stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). HCMV replication was detected at 17 days poststimulation, and virus was recovered after long-term culture from a macrophage expressing dendritic cell markers. Thus, these observations demonstrate that PBMCs harbor latent HCMV, which reactivates in a myeloid lineage cell upon allogeneic stimulation.