Statement on the effects of law enforcement in school settings.

School-based law enforcement (SBLE) have become increasingly common in U.S. schools over recent decades despite the controversy surrounding their presence and lack of consensus around their associated benefits and harms. Drawing on the history and evidence base regarding SBLE, we advocate for an end to SBLE programs. Grounding our argument in principles of Community Psychology and positive youth development, we outline how the presence and actions of SBLE negatively affect individual students as well as school systems, with particularly harmful outcomes for students with minoritized and marginalized identities. Research on SBLE and school crime does not provide consistent evidence of positive impacts, and many studies find null effects for the relationship between SBLE and school crime or increases in crime and violence in schools. Though funding for SBLE is often prompted by high-profile acts of gun violence in schools, evidence suggests that SBLE neither prevents these incidents, nor lessens the severity when they do occur. Thus, we advocate for removing law enforcement from school settings and redirecting resources into inclusive, evidence-informed responses that are generally safer and more effective than SBLE. We close by outlining the policy landscape governing SBLE programs and ways communities can lobby for change.

School-based law enforcement strategies to reduce crime, increase perceptions of safety, and improve learning outcomes in primary and secondary schools: A systematic review.

Background: School-based law enforcement (SBLE) has become a common intervention. Although SBLE is meant to make schools safer, critics suggest it may not accomplish this purpose, and may have unintended negative consequences such as increasing students' exclusionary discipline or contact with the criminal justice system. There may also be secondary effects related to perceptions of the school or student learning. Objectives: The purpose of this review is to synthesize the literature evaluating the use of SBLE, including outcomes related to (a) crime and behavior problems; (b) perceptions of safety; and (c) learning. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature search to identify studies that examined outcomes associated with SBLE use. Eligible studies used experimental or quasi-experimental designs; included samples of students, teachers/staff, schools, or school districts; reported on a policing strategy focused on crime prevention or school safety that did not involve officers teaching a curriculum; included a measure that reflects crime and behavior problems, perceptions of safety, or learning; and were in a primary or secondary school. Following a multi-stage screening process to identify studies eligible for inclusion, we estimated a series of meta-analytic models with robust variance estimation to calculate weighted mean effect sizes for each of three main categories of outcomes and commonly occurring subsets of these categories. We examined heterogeneity in these estimates across features of the primary studies' design. Results: The search and screening process yielded 1002 effect sizes from 32 reports. There were no true experiments, and the quasi-experiments ranged from strictly correlational to permitting stronger causal inferences. SBLE use was associated with greater crime and behavior problems in studies that used schools as the unit of analysis. Within this category, SBLE use was associated with increased exclusionary discipline among studies that used both schools (g = 0.15, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.02, 0.27]) and students (g = 0.003, 95% CI [0.002, 0.003]) as the unit of analysis. SBLE use was not associated with any measures of crime or violence in schools. SBLE use was associated with greater feelings of safety among studies that used schools as the unit of analysis (g = 0.18, 95% CI [0.13, 0.24]), although this estimate was based on only seven effect sizes from two correlational studies. All the other models, including those examining learning outcomes, yielded null results. None of the moderators tested showed meaningful relationships, indicating the findings were consistent across a variety of study design features. Authors' Conclusions: This study's findings provide no evidence that there is a safety-promoting component of SBLE, and support the criticism that SBLE criminalizes students and schools. Although we found no evidence of differences across methodological features, risk of bias in the primary studies limits our confidence in making causal inferences. To the extent that the findings are causal, schools that invest in strategies to improve safety will likely benefit from divesting from SBLE and instead investing in evidence-based strategies for enhancing school safety. Schools that continue to use SBLE should ensure that their model has no harmful effects and is providing safety benefits.

Short-term Outcomes of Emergent Versus Elective Gastrectomy for Gastric Adenocarcinoma: A National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Study.

BACKGROUND: Gastric adenocarcinoma is a leading cause of cancer death worldwide and in the United States, and can present emergently with upper GI hemorrhage, obstruction, or perforation. Few large studies have examined how emergency surgery for gastric cancer affects patient outcomes. METHODS: All patients from National Surgical Quality Improvement Program with gastric adenocarcinoma from 2005 to 2017 were examined retrospectively. Univariate and multivariate analysis of patient factors and perioperative outcomes was performed. P-values < .05 were significant. RESULTS: Of 4663 total patients, 115 had emergency surgery and 4548 had elective surgery. Emergency surgery patients were more likely to be non-white, underweight, higher ASA class, require a preoperative blood transfusion, and were less likely to be functionally independent. Multivariate analysis demonstrates an increased likelihood of unplanned intubation, prolonged ventilation, and deep vein thrombosis (DVT). DISCUSSION: There are no significant differences in mortality, reoperation, or infection when comparing emergent surgery for gastric cancer and elective surgery; however, there is an increased risk of reintubation, prolonged intubation, and DVT in patients undergoing emergent surgery. Patients requiring emergent surgery have more comorbidities, higher blood transfusion requirements, and worse preoperative functional status, and this study demonstrates that they also have worse perioperative outcomes. Previous studies have shown that long-term oncologic outcomes are worse for patients undergoing urgent surgery, and this study shows that perioperative outcomes are also somewhat worse. Thus, definitive surgery performed on a patient who presents emergently with gastric cancer should be considered but may come at the cost of increased perioperative respiratory complications, DVTs, and worse oncologic outcomes.

Securing Schools? Examining the Longitudinal Relationships Between Student Behavior and Engagement With Security Measures in Urban School Systems.

The use of school security measures has increased over the last two decades. Yet prior research suggests school security measures have a deterrent effect on student misbehavior. Existing studies often focus on school-level comparisons in security as opposed to examining how students within a given school differ in their interaction with security measures (i.e., within-school differences). To address this gap in the literature, the current study estimates the association between individual students' engagement with security and multiple forms of maladaptive student behavior in school. In particular, this study is guided by two research questions: 1) What is the relationship between students' engagement with school security measures and their engagement in problem behaviors; and, 2) To what extent do the relationships between engagement with security and student behavior problems differ by student race and ethnicity? Longitudinal data were collected from students at two separate time points in one academic year (N=359) across eight schools in one urban school district. Using a series of models to examine how students' engagement with school security measures is related to their perpetration of student behavior, findings highlight negative associations between engagement with school security and non-serious violent and weapons-related crime. While the school security change score and students' engagement in problem behaviors was no different for Black students than it was for students who were non-Black or non-Hispanic, the negative association between engagement with security and behavior indicated a stronger deterrent effect for Hispanic students. Findings suggest that engagement with school security should be examined at the within-school level and with consideration that racial and ethnic differences might vary from student to student within any given school. Moreover, long-term programming goals should be established when developing process for securing schools with emphasis on how security measures might influence individual students differently within the school setting.

Youth Reentry from Prison and Family Violence Perpetration: the Salience of Family Dynamics.

The central role of family within the process of juvenile reentry from a term of incarceration has been well documented by researchers and practitioners alike. However, family violence among previously incarcerated youth remains alarmingly high across the United States. Drawing from differential coercion and social support theory, we examine how family dynamics may simultaneously promote and/or inhibit family violence perpetration among youth undergoing the process of reentry. Four waves of panel data from the male-only youth subsample of the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative are analyzed using a series of dynamic panel data models. Findings demonstrate that both pre- and post-release levels of family conflict are significantly associated with increased family violence during reintegration. Mechanisms of family support, however, are not associated with post-release family violence. Results from this study highlight the salience of family conflict in understanding family violence perpetration among recently released juveniles and their families.

Exclusionary School Discipline and Delinquent Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis.

Excluding students from school remains a common form of punishment despite growing critique of the practice. A disparate research base has impeded the ability to make broader assessments on the association between exclusionary discipline (i.e., suspensions and expulsions) and subsequent behavior. This article synthesizes existing empirical evidence (274 effect sizes from 40 primary studies) examining the relationship between exclusionary discipline and delinquent outcomes, including school misconduct/infractions, antisocial behavior, involvement with the justice system, and risky behaviors. This meta-analysis identifies exclusionary discipline as an important and meaningful predictor of increased delinquency. Additional examinations of potential moderators, including race/ethnicity and type of exclusion, revealed no significant differences, suggesting the harm associated with exclusions is consistent across subgroups. These findings indicate exclusionary discipline may inadvertently exacerbate rather than mollify delinquent behaviors.

Criminal Justice and Community Psychology: Our Values and Our Work-The Introduction to the Special Issue.

This special issue of The American Journal of Community Psychology originated from the Society for Community Research and Action Criminal Justice interest group, with a goal of exploring the work of community psychologists intersecting with criminal justice research, practice, and policy and shaped by our shared values-equity, collaboration, creative maladjustment, social justice, and social science in the service of social justice. In this introduction, we discuss the socio-historical context of the special issue, followed by an outline of the special issue organization, and brief summary of the included papers. Across 13 papers and an invited commentary, we see the ways in which community psychologists are: (1) delivering and evaluating services, programming, or other supports to address the needs of system-involved people; and (2) working to improve the systems, structures, and interactions with units of criminal justice systems. Across these two sections, authors highlight the guiding role of our values to influence change within and outside of criminal-legal systems.

Correction to: School Security Measures and Longitudinal Trends in Adolescents' Experiences of Victimization.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Who belongs in school? Examining the link between Black and White racial disparities in sense of school belonging and suspension.

Relative to White students, Black students experience higher rates of exclusionary discipline and less welcoming school environments. However, little empirical research has examined the extent to which these two parallel racial disparities are linked. This study examines the relationship between student race and suspension and whether this relationship depends on school-level racial disparities in students' sense of school belonging. Using data from 73,755 students (56.4% White, 43.6% Black or African-American) nested within 131 schools, this study uses a series of multilevel models with cross-level interactions. This study finds that Black students are consistently more likely to be suspended than White students, but this difference is nonsignificant in schools where Black students' sense of school belonging is much higher than that of White students'. As such, schools' efforts toward reducing the discipline gap may benefit from making schools more welcoming to Black students.

Mass Incarceration and Subsequent Preventive Health Care: Mechanisms and Racial/Ethnic Disparities.

Objectives. To examine the associations and mechanisms between 2 indicators of mass incarceration and preventive health care use and whether these associations are moderated by race/ethnicity.Methods. We used 1997 to 2015-2016 data from the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (n = 7740) to examine the associations between arrest and incarceration at ages 18 to 27 years and cholesterol, blood sugar, and blood pressure screenings at age 29 years. Explanatory mechanisms included blocked access (health care coverage and medical checkup) and economic (education, employment, and income) factors. We used logistic regression to model main effects.Results. Arrest was associated with lower odds of getting blood cholesterol, blood sugar, and blood pressure tests; incarceration was associated with lower odds of getting cholesterol and blood sugar tests; blocked access and economic factors mediated 42% to 125% of these associations. These associations were mostly consistent across race/ethnicity.Conclusions. Mass incarceration contributes to decreases in preventive health care use, which are explained in part by blocked access and economic factors.Public Health Implications. The decreased use of preventive health care following mass incarceration may increase the prevalence of disease and the associated costs of treatment.

Examining the Moderating Role of Social Bonds in the Relationship between School Victimization and Educational Attainment.

School victimization affects a relatively small proportion of students each year, but this victimization may have long-term effects on a child's life trajectory, including graduating high school and enrolling in college. Social bond theory posits that bonds - like commitment and involvement - may buffer the harmful effects of victimization. This research uses the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (n = 16,197) to examine the moderating role of social bonds between school victimization and these measures of educational attainment. The results of the study using moderation showed that student victimization does not affect graduating high school nor enrolling in college. The relationship between student victimization and these educational outcomes is partially moderated by involvement, but not commitment.

Urgent Surgery for Gastric Adenocarcinoma: A Study of the National Cancer Database.

BACKGROUND: Gastric adenocarcinoma is a leading cause of cancer death worldwide and, in the United States, can present emergently with upper GI hemorrhage, obstruction, or perforation. No large studies have examined how urgent surgery affects patient outcomes. This study examines the outcomes of urgent versus elective surgery for gastric cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients with gastric adenocarcinoma from the National Cancer Database from 2004 to 2015 were examined retrospectively. Patients with metastatic disease or incomplete data were excluded. Urgent surgery was defined as definitive surgery within 3 d of diagnosis. Univariate and multivariate analysis of patient factors, surgical outcomes, and oncologic data was performed. P-values <0.05 were statistically significant. RESULTS: Of 26,116 total patients, 2964 had urgent surgery and 23,468 had elective surgery. Urgent surgery patients were significantly older, were female, were nonwhite, had higher pathologic stage, and were treated at a low-volume center. Urgent surgery was associated with decreased quality lymph node harvest (odds ratio [OR] 0.68 95% confidence interval {CI} [0.62, 0.74]), increased positive surgical margin (OR 1.48, 95% CI [1.32, 1.65]), increased 30-d mortality (OR 1.38, 95% CI [1.16, 1.65]), increased 90-d mortality (OR 1.30, 95% CI [1.14, 1.49]), and decreased overall survival (hazard ratio 1.21, 95% CI [1.15, 1.27]). CONCLUSIONS: Urgent surgery for gastric cancer is associated with significantly worse outcomes than elective surgery. Stable patients requiring urgent surgical resection for gastric cancer may benefit from referral to a high-volume center for resection by an experienced surgeon. Patients undergoing urgent resection for gastric cancer should be referred to surgical and medical oncologists to ensure they receive appropriate adjuvant therapy and surveillance.

School Security Measures and Longitudinal Trends in Adolescents' Experiences of Victimization.

Although school security measures have become a common fixture in public schools across the United States, research on the relationship between security and adolescent victimization is mixed, with very few studies examining trends in adolescent victimization across time. Using two waves of data from the Educational Longitudinal Study 2002 (N = 7659; 50.6% female; 56.7% White, 13.3% Black, 13.5% Hispanic, 11.3% Asian American, 5.4% other race), results from a series of multi-level models demonstrate that adolescents in schools with more security measures report higher odds of being threatened with harm, and no difference in odds of being in a physical altercation or having something stolen over time. Although prior research has established racial disparities in using school security measures, results demonstrate inconsistent patterns in the extent to which adolescents' race conditions the relationship between security and victimization. The findings are discussed in light of existing theoretical and empirical work, and implications for both research and practice are offered.

Academic Consequences of Multiple Victimization and the Role of School Security Measures.

Adolescents who experience multiple victimization (i.e., victimization on a regular basis) are at greater risk for having negative academic outcomes including lower achievement and poorer attendance than those who do not experience such victimization. Yet, the role of school contexts in this relationship remains unclear. Nevertheless, school-based efforts to reduce victimization often focus on altering contexts without sufficient evidence of associations with improved student outcomes. School security measures constitute one such suite of contextual interventions aimed at reducing victimization. This study tested a moderated mediation model in which the relationship between multiple victimization and academic performance is mediated by absenteeism, and the relationship between multiple victimization and absenteeism is moderated by the presence of school security measures. Participants were 5930 (49.6% female and 79.51% White) 12- to 18-year-old adolescents from a national sample collected through the 2011 School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey. Results of path analysis models indicated that the relationship between multiple victimization and academic performance was partially mediated by absenteeism, and that both metal detectors and security guards moderated the relationship between multiple victimization and absenteeism. Additional analyses revealed the utility of considering subpopulations of victims characterized by specific facets of their contexts. Implications for practitioners and researchers are discussed.

Peer Cybervictimization Among Adolescents and the Associated Internalizing and Externalizing Problems: A Meta-Analysis.

Numerous adolescents in the United States experience peer cybervictimization, which is associated with a series of internalizing (e.g., depression, anxiety, anger) and externalizing (e.g., aggression, substance use, risky sexual behavior) problems. The current study provides a systematic review and meta-analysis of existing research on these relationships. Included in the meta-analyses are 239 effect sizes from 55 reports, representing responses from 257,678 adolescents. The results of a series of random effects meta-analyses using robust variance estimation indicated positive and significant relationships between peer cybervictimization and a series of internalizing and externalizing problems, with point estimates of this relationship ranging from Pearson's r = .14 to .34. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Visible School Security Measures and Student Academic Performance, Attendance, and Postsecondary Aspirations.

Many U.S. schools use visible security measures (security cameras, metal detectors, security personnel) in an effort to keep schools safe and promote adolescents' academic success. This study examined how different patterns of visible security utilization were associated with U.S. middle and high school students' academic performance, attendance, and postsecondary educational aspirations. The data for this study came from two large national surveys--the School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (N = 38,707 students; 51% male, 77% White, MAge = 14.72) and the School Survey on Crime and Safety (N = 10,340 schools; average student composition of 50% male, 57% White). The results provided no evidence that visible security measures had consistent beneficial effects on adolescents' academic outcomes; some security utilization patterns had modest detrimental effects on adolescents' academic outcomes, particularly the heavy surveillance patterns observed in a small subset of high schools serving predominantly low socioeconomic students. The findings of this study provide no evidence that visible security measures have any sizeable effects on academic performance, attendance, or postsecondary aspirations among U.S. middle and high school students.

Leaving Homelessness Behind: Housing Decisions among Families Exiting Shelter1.

Because homelessness assistance programs are designed to help families, it is important for policymakers and practitioners to understand how families experiencing homelessness make housing decisions, particularly when they decide not to use available services. This study explores those decisions using in-depth qualitative interviews with 80 families recruited in shelters across four sites approximately six months after they were assigned to one of four conditions (permanent housing subsidies, project-based transitional housing, community-based rapid re-housing, and usual care). Familiar neighborhoods near children's schools, transportation, family and friends, and stability were important to families across conditions. Program restrictions on eligibility constrained family choices. Subsidized housing was the most desired intervention and families leased up at higher rates than in other studies of poor families. Respondents were least comfortable in and most likely to leave transitional housing. Uncertainty associated with community-based rapid re-housing generated considerable anxiety. Across interventions, many families had to make unhappy compromises, often leading to further moves. Policy recommendations are offered.