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INTRODUCTION: Retrieval practice has been shown to be an effective means of learning new information, a memory phenomenon known as the testing effect or the retrieval practice effect. Some work suggests that the magnitude of the testing effect can be enhanced when the test used for retrieval practice uses fewer cues to retrieve previously studied information. It is unclear, however, whether such testing benefits extend to peripheral contextual details associated with studied materials (e.g., location where stimuli appear, font color in which items are presented, etc.). In this experiment, we examine both item memory (i.e., memory for the studied items) and context memory under conditions where the intervening test offers fewer cues (i.e., lower constraint) compared to more cues (higher constraint) to better understand item and context memory testing effects. METHODS: Participants first studied word pairs presented in one of eight locations as well as in either red or green font color. Then, in the re-exposure phase, participants processed materials in two types of intervening tests (lower constraint and a higher constraint test) as well as in a restudy condition, before a final memory test. RESULTS: For item memory, results showed that memory was better in the lower constraint testing condition compared to both the higher constraint testing condition as well as the restudy (control) condition. For context memory, results indicated improved memory for location context under lower constraint testing compared to both higher constraint testing and restudy conditions. There was no difference in memory, however, for color context across all conditions. CONCLUSION: Overall, these findings suggest that providing fewer cues to aid retrieval in the intervening test can induce better memory for both items as well as some contextual details.
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Aprendizaje , Recuerdo Mental , Humanos , Señales (Psicología)RESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Prior work in the memory domain has shown that certain social information is especially well-remembered such as information for social targets who cheat. Less work, however, has investigated the extent people remember information for social targets who engage in prosocial behaviors (e.g., helping) in social interactions. The current investigation examines whether there is a memory advantage for social targets who perform prosocial behaviors. METHODS: Across two experiments, participants formed impressions of social targets engaging in prosocial and non-prosocial behaviors. Participants were then tested on their memory for the impression as well as the specific behavior each social target performed. RESULTS: Results of Experiment 1 showed that memory for impressions was better for social targets engaging in prosocial compared to non-prosocial behaviors. Results of Experiment 2 showed marginally better behavior memory for targets performing prosocial compared to non-prosocial behaviors. CONCLUSION: Overall, results of both experiments provide converging evidence of a prosocial advantage in memory, which suggests that people are attuned to prosocial behaviors exhibited by others in the social domain.
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Memoria , Conducta Social , HumanosRESUMEN
Evidence suggests that memory is involved in making simulations and predictions about the future (i.e., future thinking), but less work has examined how the outcome of those predictions (whether events play out as predicted or expected) subsequently affects episodic memory. In this investigation, we examine whether memory is better for outcomes that are consistent with predictions, or whether memory is enhanced for outcomes that are inconsistent with predictions, after the predicted event occurs. In this experiment, participants learned a core trait associated with social targets (e.g., high in extroversion), before making predictions about behaviors targets would perform. Participants then were shown behaviors the social targets actually performed (i.e., prediction outcome), which was either consistent or inconsistent with predictions. After that, participants completed a memory test (recognition; recall) for the prediction outcomes. For recognition, the results revealed better memory for outcomes that were consistent with traits associated with targets (i.e., trait-consistent outcomes), compared to outcomes that were inconsistent (i.e., trait-inconsistent outcomes). Finding a memory advantage for trait-consistent outcomes suggests that outcomes that are in line with the contents of memory (e.g., what one knows; schemas) are more readily remembered than those that are inconsistent with memory, which may reflect an adaptive memory process. For recall, memory did not differ between trait-consistent and trait-inconsistent outcomes. Altogether, the results of this experiment advance understanding of the reciprocal relationship between episodic memory and future thinking and show that outcome of predictions has an influence on subsequent episodic memory, at least as measured by recognition.
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Memoria Episódica , Humanos , Imaginación , Recuerdo Mental , Reconocimiento en Psicología , PensamientoRESUMEN
Retrieval practice effect refers to improved memory on a final test for information retrieved one or more times. Although past theoretical work identifies cognitive mechanisms to explain retrieval practice benefits, it is possible that improving self-efficacy during learning may also contribute to better memory, in line with limited past work showing a relationship between self-efficacy and memory. Across two experiments, we examine the potential relationship between retrieval practice, self-efficacy, and memory. In Experiment 1, we examined the extent change in self-efficacy accounted for improved memory on a final test after retrieval practice compared with restudy. In Experiment 2, we gave participants (false) feedback that was either negative (i.e., you performed worse than others), neutral (i.e., you performed the same as others), or positive (i.e., you performed better than others) to more directly assess the effects of self-efficacy on memory under retrieval practice conditions. Results of Experiment 1 showed a significant retrieval practice effect, with memory on the final test being better after retrieval practice compared with restudy. Self-efficacy did not significantly mediate the retrieval practice effect. Results of Experiment 2, however, showed that decreases in self-efficacy due to (false) negative feedback resulted in worse memory performance compared with neutral feedback. Such findings may suggest that change in self-efficacy after retrieval practice attempts, particularly negative feedback, affects memory at final test. Overall, these findings suggest a relationship between retrieval practice, self-efficacy, and memory, and imply that interventions that influence self-efficacy may be a plausible mechanism to modulate memory under some conditions.
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Recuerdo Mental , Autoeficacia , Cognición , Humanos , AprendizajeRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Decades of research has investigated the relationship between memory and future thinking. Although some of this work has shown that memory forms the basis of making predictions about the future, less work has investigated how the outcome of those predictions (whether consistent or inconsistent with what one predicts) is later remembered. Limited past works suggests that memory for outcomes that are consistent with what one predicts are better remembered that predictions that are inconsistent. To advance understanding of the relationship between episodic memory and future thinking, the current investigation examines how the outcome of predictions affects memory after the predicted events takes place. METHODS: In this experiment, participants first learned trait information about social targets. Then, participants imagined scenarios involving targets and the self (i.e., the participant) and made predictions about which behaviors targets would perform based on the trait information associated with targets participants learned earlier. Participants were then told the behaviors the targets actually performed (i.e., prediction outcome), which was either consistent or inconsistent with predictions, before then taking a memory test for prediction outcomes (what the social target actually did). RESULTS: Results showed memory for prediction-consistent outcomes was better than for prediction-inconsistent outcomes, suggesting people exhibit enhanced memory for events that are in line with predictions based on existing contents of memory (e.g., what one knows; schemas), which is in line with the limited past work in this domain. CONCLUSION: Overall, finding better memory for prediction-consistent outcomes may reflect an adaptive function in memory, where people show enhanced memory for episodes when they play out as predicted, and aligned with the current contents of memory.
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Memoria Episódica , Predicción , Humanos , Recuerdo MentalRESUMEN
People are motivated to make social decisions to approach or avoid social targets (i.e., other people). Prior work has shown people make approach/avoidance (AA) decisions based on factors like physical appearance, race, gender, sexuality, etc., but less work has investigated the extent that memory for past encounters with social targets might influence AA decisions. Here, we investigate the role of episodic memory (memory for specific details associated with specific social targets) on AA decisions. In this investigation, participants formed positive or negative impressions based on social targets' behaviors before completing a memory test for specific episodic details associated with targets (self-generated impressions formed about target; behavior associated with targets). Participants then made AA decisions for those social targets, as well as new targets. Results showed strong approach tendencies when participants correctly remembered positive details associated with targets (impressions; behaviors) and strong avoidance tendencies when participants correctly remembered negative impressions associated with targets. For novel targets (targets not seen before and thus not associated with prior memory representations), participants showed no approach or avoidance tendencies. Overall, these findings suggest an important role for episodic memory on AA decisions, which is a potentially important mechanism in social decisions.
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Memoria Episódica , Toma de Decisiones , Humanos , Recuerdo Mental , Conducta SocialRESUMEN
Past work shows that processing information in relation to the self improves memory which is known as the self-reference effect in memory. Other work suggests that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can also improve memory. Given recent research on self-reference context memory effects (improved memory for contextual episodic details associated with self-referential processing), we were interested in examining the extent stimulation might increase the magnitude of the self-reference context memory effect. In this investigation, participants studied objects superimposed on different background scenes in either a self-reference or other-reference condition while receiving either active or sham stimulation to the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), a cortical region known to support self-reference context memory effects. Participants then completed a memory test that assessed item memory (have you seen this object before?) and context memory (with which background scene was this object paired?). Results showed a self-reference context memory effect driven by enhanced memory for stimuli processed in the self-reference compared to the other-reference condition across all participants (regardless of stimulation condition). tDCS, however, had no effect on memory. Specifically, stimulation did not increase the magnitude of the self-reference context memory effect under active compared to sham stimulation. These results suggest that stimulation of the dmPFC at encoding may not add to the memory benefits induced by self-referential processing suggesting a boundary condition to tDCS effects on memory.
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Estimulación Transcraneal de Corriente Directa , Humanos , Corteza Prefrontal/fisiologíaRESUMEN
The ability to prioritize learning some information over others when that information is considered important or valuable is known as value-directed remembering. In these experiments, we investigate how value influences different aspects of memory, including item memory (memory for the to-be-learned materials) and context memory (memory for peripheral details that occurred when studying items) to get a better understanding of how people prioritize learning information. In this investigation, participants encoded words associated with a range of values (binned into higher, medium, and lower value in Experiment 1, and into higher and lower value in Experiment 2) for a subsequent memory test that measured item memory (Is this item old or new?) as well as both objective context memory (memory for an objectively verifiable contextual detail: In which voice was this item spoken?) and subjective context memory (How many visual, auditory, and extraneous thoughts/feelings can you remember associated with this item?). Results indicated that value influenced item memory but had no effect on objective context memory in both Experiments. In Experiment 2, results showed better subjective context memory for multiple episodic details for higher-value relative to lower-value materials. Overall, these findings suggest that value has a strong influence over some aspects of memory, but not others. This work gives a richer understanding of how people prioritize learning more important over less important information.
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Memoria Episódica , Reconocimiento en Psicología , Emociones , Objetivos , Humanos , Aprendizaje , Recuerdo MentalRESUMEN
Self-generated information is often better remembered than read information (the generation effect). Recent research, however, has shown that generating information under fewer experimental constraints (i.e., fewer limitations on what can be generated) can increase the magnitude of the generation effect. This study systematically varied generation constraint to better understand the effects of constraint on memory. Participants encoded associated cue-target word pairs (above-below) on either the left or right side of a computer monitor. At encoding, generation constraint was manipulated by systematically varying the number of letters given to participants to generate the target word (i.e., above-below; option-choic_; bank-mon__; etc.). At retrieval, participants were given either a recognition, cued recall, or free recall test measuring both item (target word) and context memory (location on the computer monitor). Using mixed-effects logistic regression analyses to control for item-selection effects (e.g., participants producing idiosyncratic targets in some conditions relative to others), results indicated that generation constraint significantly influenced item, but not context (location) memory. The relationship between generation constraint and memory performance, however, differed by the type of memory test administered: Recognition data revealed a curvilinear relationship; cued recall showed a negative, linear relationship; and free recall showed no significant relationship. Overall, these findings provide more evidence that generation constraint has a strong yet complex effect on different aspects of memory, and further delineates some boundary conditions of the influence of generation constraint on memory.
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Memoria , Señales (Psicología) , Humanos , LecturaRESUMEN
The generation effect is the memory benefit for self-generated compared with read or experimenter-provided information. In recent decades, numerous theories have been proposed to explain the memory mechanism(s) and boundary conditions of the generation effect. In this meta-analysis and theoretical review, we analyzed 126 articles (310 experiments, 1,653 estimates) to assess 7 prominent theories to determine which theories are supported by the existing literature. Because some theories focus on item memory (memory for the generated target) and others focus on context memory (memory for details associated with the generated target), we examined memory effects for both types of details (item, context) in this meta-analysis. Further, we assessed the influence of generation constraint (how constrained participants are to generate a certain response), which recent work has shown affects the magnitude of the generation effect. Overall, the results of this meta-analysis support some theoretical accounts, but not others, as explanatory mechanisms of the generation effect. Results further showed that generation constraint significantly moderates the magnitude of the generation effect, suggesting that this factor should be rigorously investigated in future work. Overall, this meta-analysis provides a review and examination of generation effect theories, and reveals important areas of future research.
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Memoria/fisiología , Teoría Psicológica , HumanosRESUMEN
Work on future thinking suggests that people use what they know about the world (e.g., contents of memory) to make predictions about events to come, which reflects an adaptive use of memory. Less work, however, has examined whether the outcomes of these predictions-whether the outcome is consistent or inconsistent with predictions-influences memory. In two experiments, participants learned trait information about social targets and used that information to predict which of two behaviors social targets would be most likely to engage in: one behavior consistent with previously learned trait information about the target and the other behavior inconsistent. Participants then learned which behavior the social target actually performed (outcome) and then judged whether or not they expected that outcome (expectancy). Across both studies, prediction-consistent outcomes were better remembered than inconsistent ones, suggesting that participants relied on their existing representations of social targets when making memory judgments rather than incorporating inconsistent information into memory. Further, there was a memory advantage for prediction-inconsistent outcomes, but only when participants subjectively rated these outcomes as unexpected. Overall, these findings extend understanding of future thinking and suggest a reliable memory advantage for outcomes that are consistent with predictions.
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Memoria , Recuerdo Mental , Predicción , Humanos , JuicioRESUMEN
Memory is often better for information that is self-generated versus read (i.e. the generation effect). Theoretical work attributes the generation effect to two mechanisms: enhanced item-specific and relational processing (i.e. the two-factor theory). Recent work has demonstrated that the generation effect increases when generation tasks place lower, relative to higher, constraints on what participants can self-generate. This study examined whether the effects of generation constraint on memory might be attributable to either mechanism of the two-factor theory. Across three experiments, participants encoded word pairs in two generation conditions (lower- and higher-constraint) and a read control task, followed by a memory test for item memory and two context memory details (source and font color). The results of these experiments support the idea that lower-constraint generation increases the generation effect via enhanced relational processing, as measured through both recognition and cued recall tasks. Results further showed that lower-constraint generation improves context memory for conceptual context (source), but not perceptual context (color), suggesting that this enhanced relational processing may extend to conceptually related details of an item. Overall, these results provide more evidence that fewer generation constraints increase the generation effect and implicate enhanced relational processing as a mechanism for this improvement.
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Recuerdo Mental , Lectura , Reconocimiento en Psicología , Adulto , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Prior work demonstrates that application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) improves memory. In this study, we investigated tDCS effects on face-name associative memory using both recall and recognition tests. Participants encoded face-name pairs under either active (1.5mA) or sham (.1mA) stimulation applied to the scalp adjacent to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), an area known to support associative memory. Participants' memory was then tested after study (day one) and then again after a 24-h delay (day two), to assess both immediate and delayed stimulation effects on memory. Results indicated that active relative to sham stimulation led to substantially improved recall (more than 50%) at both day one and day two. Recognition memory performance did not differ between stimulation groups at either time point. These results suggest that stimulation at encoding improves memory performance by enhancing memory for details that enable a rich recollective experience, but that these improvements are evident only under some testing conditions, especially those that rely on recollection. Overall, stimulation of the dlPFC could have led to recall improvement through enhanced encoding from stimulation or from carryover effects of stimulation that influenced retrieval processes, or both.