Longitudinal outcomes of obeticholic acid therapy in ursodiol-nonresponsive primary biliary cholangitis: Stratifying the impact of add-on fibrates in real-world practice.

BACKGROUND: Suboptimal response to ursodeoxycholic acid occurs in 40% of primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) patients, affecting survival. Achieving a deep response (normalisation of alkaline phosphatase [ALP] and bilirubin ≤0.6 upper limit of normal) improves survival. Yet, the long-term effectiveness of second-line treatments remains uncertain. AIMS: To evaluate the long-term effectiveness of obeticholic acid (OCA) ± fibrates. Focusing on biochemical response (ALP ≤1.67 times the upper limit of normal, with a decrease of at least 15% from baseline and normal bilirubin levels), normalisation of ALP, deep response and biochemical remission (deep response plus aminotransferase normalisation). METHODS: We conducted a longitudinal, observational, multicentre study involving ursodeoxyccholic acid non-responsive PBC patients (Paris-II criteria) from Spain and Portugal who received OCA ± fibrates. RESULTS: Of 255 patients, median follow-up was 35.1 months (IQR: 20.2-53). The biochemical response in the whole cohort was 47.2%, 61.4% and 68.6% at 12, 24 and 36 months. GLOBE-PBC and 5-year UK-PBC scores improved (p < 0.001). Triple therapy (ursodeoxycholic acid plus OCA plus fibrates) had significantly higher response rates than dual therapy (p = 0.001), including ALP normalisation, deep response and biochemical remission (p < 0.001). In multivariate analysis, triple therapy remained independently associated with biochemical response (p = 0.024), alkaline phosphatase normalisation, deep response and biochemical remission (p < 0.001). Adverse effects occurred in 41.2% of cases, leading to 18.8% discontinuing OCA. Out of 55 patients with cirrhosis, 12 developed decompensation. All with baseline portal hypertension. CONCLUSION: Triple therapy was superior in achieving therapeutic goals in UDCA-nonresponsive PBC. Decompensation was linked to pre-existing portal hypertension.

Resultados a largo plazo del tratamiento de la degeneración macular asociada a la edad neovascular mediante fármacos antiangiogénicos: revisión de la bibliografía / Long-term results of treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration using antiangiogenic drugs: A review of the literature

La degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) constituye una de las principales causas de la pérdida de agudeza visual (AV) en los mayores de 50 años en el mundo, siendo la DMAE neovascular (DMAEn) la causante del 80% de los casos de pérdida de visión severa debido a esta enfermedad. Hace ya más de una década que se emplean los fármacos antifactor de crecimiento del endotelio vascular (anti-VEGF) para el tratamiento de esta enfermedad, cambiando drásticamente el pronóstico visual de estos pacientes. Sin embargo, los primeros estudios de los que se disponían datos de los resultados eran a corto plazo. En la actualidad existen ya diferentes series publicadas de los resultados de la DMAE a largo plazo tras el tratamiento con anti-VEGF, siendo el objetivo de la presente revisión sintetizar dichos resultados. El seguimiento medio de los estudios incluidos fue de 8,2 años (rango: 5-12 años). La AV inicial media fue 55,3 letras del Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) (rango: 45,6-65) siendo la AV final media 50,1 letras (rango: 33,0-64,3), existiendo una pérdida media de 5,2 letras. Al final del seguimiento un 29,4% de los pacientes mantuvieron una AV>70 letras. El 67,9% de los pacientes se mantuvo estable al final del seguimiento (<15 letras de pérdida), existiendo una pérdida severa (≥15 letras) del 30,1%. La fibrosis y la atrofia fueron las principales causas de pérdida de AV a largo plazo, presentándose al final del seguimiento en un 52,5% y un 60,5%, respectivamente.(AU)

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the main causes of visual acuity (VA) loss in people over 50 years of age worldwide, with neovascular AMD (nAMD) accounting for 80% of cases of severe vision loss due to this disease. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) drugs have been used for the treatment of this disease for more than a decade, changing drastically the visual prognosis of these patients. However, initial studies reporting data on outcomes were short term. Currently, there are different series published on the long-term results of AMD after treatment with anti-VEGF, and the aim of this review is to synthesize these results. The mean follow-up of the included studies was 8.2 years (range 5-12 years). The mean initial VA was 55.3 letters in the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) (range 45.6-65) and the mean final VA was 50.1 letters (range 33.0-64.3), with a mean loss of 5.2 letters. At the end of follow-up, 29.4% of the patients maintained a VA>70 letters. The 67.9% of patients remained stable at the end of follow-up (<15 letter loss), with a severe loss (≥15 letters) of 30.1%. Fibrosis and atrophy were the main causes of long-term VA loss, occurring at the end of follow-up in 52.5% and 60.5%, respectively.(AU)

Combined application of high pressure and ultrasound in fig paste: effect on bioactive and volatile compounds.

The combined impact of high-hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and ultrasound (US) on the cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside (C3R), quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (Q3R), and volatile compounds from fig (Ficus carica) paste was investigated. The HHP increased the content of C3R and Q3R, from 70 to 133 mg/kg fw and 31 to 44 mg/kg fw, respectively. The combination of HHP and US further enhanced the extraction of these bioactive compounds. Specifically, processing fig paste with US for 5 min at 40 °C yielded approximately 250 mg of C3R/kg fw and 45 mg of Q3R/kg fw, after 20 min. More than 25 volatile compounds were identified, with benzaldehyde being the predominant compound, accounting > 75%. Trace amounts of hydroxymethylfurfural (< 0.36 mg/100 g fw) were detected in HHP-processed fig paste. The application of HHP at mild temperatures and short time, combined with US, effectively promotes the content of bioactive compounds present in fig paste without adversely affecting the fruit's volatile compounds. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01410-1.

Long-term results of treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration using antiangiogenic drugs: A review of the literature.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the main causes of visual acuity (VA) loss in people over 50 years of age worldwide, with neovascular AMD (nAMD) accounting for 80% of cases of severe vision loss due to this disease. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) drugs have been used for the treatment of this disease for more than a decade, changing drastically the visual prognosis of these patients. However, initial studies reporting data on outcomes were short term. Currently, there are different series published on the long-term results of AMD after treatment with anti-VEGF, and the aim of this review is to synthesize these results. The mean follow-up of the included studies was 8.2 years (range 5-12 years). The mean initial VA was 55.3 letters in the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) (range 45.6-65) and the mean final VA was 50.1 letters (range 33.0-64.3), with a mean loss of 5.2 letters. At the end of follow-up, 29.4% of the patients maintained a VA > 70 letters. The 67.9% of patients remained stable at the end of follow-up (< 15 letter loss), with a severe loss (≥ 15 letters) of 30.1%. Fibrosis and atrophy were the main causes of long-term VA loss, occurring at the end of follow-up in 52.5% and 60.5%, respectively.

Alternatives to maize monocropping in Mediterranean irrigated conditions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Winter legume cover crops or double-cropping in high N-fertilizer maize-based sprinkler-irrigated systems enhance agroecosystem diversity and potentially increase yields. However, the effects on direct N2O emissions and global warming potential (GWP) have not been fully established. For two years, in the Ebro Valley (Spain), four maize-based systems consisted of: long-season maize (Zea mays) with winter fallow period (F-LSM) the reference system; or after a leguminous cover crop (common vetch, Vicia sativa) (CC-LSM); and short-season maize after a cereal crop (barley, Hordeum vulgare) (B-SSM) or after a leguminous crop (pea, Pisum sativum) (P-SSM). They were assessed in terms of productivity, direct greenhouse gasses emissions (GHG: N2O, CH4, CO2), and global warming potential (GWP). Direct GHG emissions were measured using the static chamber technique, while soil parameters were monitored. Crop yields and nitrogen uptake were also quantified. GHG emissions linked to management and inputs were calculated to obtain GWP and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI). The most productive system (B-SSM) obtained the highest direct (79 %, 35 %, and 30 % higher than the F-LSM, P-SSM, and CC-SSM, respectively) and scaled N2O emissions. The P-SSM system had similar N-uptake-scaled emissions to the monocropping (MC) systems. Irrigation, fertilizer, and farm operations accounted for the 26 %, 31 %, and 27 % of the total indirect emissions, respectively. Fertilizer production-related emissions in B-SSM and F-LSM systems were 172 % and 45 % higher than the average emissions in the systems with legumes (461 kg CO2eq. ha-1). Diversified systems lead to slightly higher GHGI values than the reference system (F-LSM). However, no differences were found between the F-LSM and P-SSM systems in GWP (4521 and 5512 kg CO2-eq. ha-1, respectively) or GHGI (144 and 158 kg CO2-eq. ha-1, respectively). The P-SSM system may be a potential alternative for increasing the diversification of maize-based irrigated agrosystems without increasing GHG emissions.

Oral cortisol and dexamethasone intake: Differential physiology and transcriptional responses in the marine juvenile Sparus aurata.

This study approached the long-term oral administration of cortisol (F) and dexamethasone (DEX), two synthetic glucocorticoids, compared to a control group (CT) in the juveniles of a marine teleost, the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata). Physiologically, DEX treatment impaired growth, which appears to be linked to carbohydrate allocation in muscle and liver, hepatic triglycerides depletion, and reduced hematocrit. Hypophyseal gh mRNA expression was 2-fold higher in DEX than in CT or F groups. Similarly, hypothalamic trh and hypophyseal pomcb followed this pattern. Plasma cortisol levels were significantly lower in DEX than in CT, while F presented intermediate levels. In the posterior intestine, measured short circuit-current (Isc) was more anion absorptive in CT and F compared to the DEX group, whereas Isc remained unaffected in the anterior intestine. The derived transepithelial electric resistance (TEER) significantly differed between intestinal regions in the DEX group. These results provide new insights to understand better potential targeted biomarkers indicative of the differential glucocorticoid or mineralocorticoid-receptors activation in fish.

Lack of fitness costs in dsRNA-resistant Leptinotarsa decemlineata ([Coleoptera]: [Chrysomelidae]).

The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) ([Coleoptera]: [Chrysomelidae]), is the most important defoliator of solanaceous plants worldwide. This insect displays a notorious ability in adapting to biological and synthetic insecticides, although in some cases this adaptation carries relevant fitness costs. Insecticidal gene silencing by RNA interference is a novel mode of action pesticide against L. decemlineata that is activated by ingestion of a double stranded RNA (dsRNA) targeting a vital L. decemlineata gene. We previously reported laboratory selection of a > 11,000-fold resistant strain of L. decemlineata to a dsRNA delivered topically to potato leaves. In this work, we tested the existence of fitness costs in this dsRNA-resistant colony by comparing biological parameters to the parental strain and an additional susceptible reference strain. Biological parameters included length of egg incubation period, number of eggs per clutch, egg viability, larval viability, length of larval and pupal periods, adult emergence, number of eggs laid per day, sex ratio, and adult longevity. Comparisons between the 3 beetle strains detected no fitness costs associated with resistance to dsRNA. This information is important to guide effective insect resistance management plans for dsRNA insecticides against L. decemlineata applied topically to potato leaves.

Multiple sclerosis and glatiramer acetate: Risk factors for central retinal vein occlusion?

Multiple sclerosis may present an increased risk for venous thromboembolism. Ophthalmological symptoms include loss of vision, visual field loss, changes in color vision, diplopia and nystagmus. First-line treatments for multiple sclerosis are beta-interferon, glatiramer acetate, dimethyl fumarate and teriflunomide. To the best of our knowledge, no ophthalmologic side effects have been reported with glatiramer acetate. We present a woman with multiple sclerosis on glatiramer acetate therapy with a central retinal vein occlusion in the absence of other risk factors.

Utilidad en la práctica clínica de la determinación de eosinófilos en el esputo inducido del paciente con asma grave / Usefulness in clinical practice of the determination of eosinophils in the induced sputum of patients with severe asthma

En los últimos años, la determinación demarcadores inflamatorios ha cobrado importancia. Los eosinófilos en el esputo inducido son un ejemplo de ello en el caso del asma grave. Objetivo: Valorar la eosinofilia en esputo como marcador de exacerbaciones, control de la enfermedad y decisión terapéutica. Determinar un punto de corte que indique un peor control del asma. Metodología: Estudio descriptivo prospectivo de serie de casos de asma grave eosinofílico, a los que se le realizó una prueba de esputo inducido, cuantificando el porcentaje de eosinófilos.Resultados: Se estudiaron 59 pacientes, con edad media de 51,55 ± 13,5 años. La mayoría con Índice de Masa Corporal (IMC) > 25. Un 65% fueron mujeres. Respecto a la función pulmonar, lo más frecuente fue la obstrucción moderada y el 68,4% algún biológico. La media de eosinófilos en sangre fue 333,62 ± 475 y en el esputo 7,94 ± 11,43%. Se logró establecer un punto de corte del 4% en el nivel de eosinófilos, relacionado con variables clínicas de control de enfermedad (tandas de corticoides y agudizaciones) para definir peor control (p = 0,013 y 0,033). Fue más significativo en tratados con biológicos. Supuso cambios terapéuticos en el 62,3% y al año una mejora en el ACT de 2,65 puntos. Se estableció correlación entre FeNO y eosinófilos en esputo (coef Pearson -0,280; p = 0,033).Conclusiones: El contaje de eosinófilos en el esputo inducido podría ser un marcador de utilidad en la valoración del control del asma grave eosinofílico y en la toma de decisiones.

In recent years, the determination of inflammatory markers has gained importance.Eosinophils in induced sputum are an example of this in severe asthma. Objetive: Assess sputum eosinophilia as a marker of exacerbations, disease control and therapeutic decision. Determine a cut-off point that indicates worse asthma control. Methodology: Prospective descriptive study of a series of cases of severe eosinophilic asthma, who underwent an induced sputum test, quantifying the percentage of eosinophils. Results: 59 patients were studied, with a mean age of 51.55 ± 13.5 years. The majority had a Body Mass Index (BMI) > 25. 65% were women. Regarding lung function, the most frequent was moderate obstruction and 68.4% some biological. The mean number of eosinophils in blood was 333.62 ± 475 and in sputum 7.94 ± 11.43%. It was possible to establish a cut-off point of 4% in the level of eosinophils, related to clinical variables of disease control (courses of corticosteroids and exacerbations) to define worse control (p = 0.013 and 0.033). It was more significant in those treated with biologicals. It involved therapeutic changes in 62.3% and meant an improvement in the ACT of 2.65 points after one year. A correlation was established between FeNO and sputum eosinophils (Pearson coefficient -0.280; p = 0.033). Conclusions: Eosinophil count in induced sputum could be a useful marker in assessing control of severe eosinophilic asthma and in decision making. (AU)

Role of the melanocortin system in zebrafish skin physiology.

The agouti-signaling protein (ASIP) acts as both a competitive antagonist and inverse agonist of melanocortin receptors which regulate dorsal-ventral pigmentation patterns in fish. However, the potential role of ASIP in the regulation of additional physiological pathways in the skin is unknown. The skin plays a crucial role in the immune function, acting as a physical limitation against infestation and also as a chemical barrier due to its ability to synthesize and secrete mucus and many immune effector proteins. In this study, the putative role of ASIP in regulating the immune system of skin has been explored using a transgenic zebrafish model overexpressing the asip1 gene (ASIPzf). Initially, the structural changes in skin induced by asip1 overexpression were studied, revealing that the ventral skin of ASIPzf was thinner than that of wild type (WT) animals. A moderate hypertrophy of mucous cells was also found in ASIPzf. Histochemical studies showed that transgenic animals appear to compensate for the lower number of cell layers by modifying the mucus composition and increasing lectin affinity and mucin content in order to maintain or improve protection against microorganism adhesion. ASIPzf also exhibit higher protein concentration under crowding conditions suggesting an increased mucus production under stressful conditions. Exposure to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) showed that ASIPzf exhibit a faster pro-inflammatory response and increased mucin expression yet severe skin injures and a slight increase in mortality was observed. Electrophysiological measurements show that the ASIP1 genotype exhibits reduced epithelial resistance, an indicator of reduced tissue integrity and barrier function. Overall, not only are ASIP1 animals more prone to infiltration and subsequent infections due to reduced skin epithelial integrity, but also display an increased inflammatory response that can lead to increased skin sensitivity to external infections.

Evidencia farmacogenética disponible de los subgrupos terapéuticos más consumidos en España / Available pharmacogenetic evidence on the most widely used therapeutic subgroups in Spain

JUSTIFICACIÓN: la variabilidad interindividual en la respuesta a los medicamentos depende de muchos factores, entre los que se encuentra el perfil genético. Polimorfismos en los genes que codifican proteínas implicadas en la farmacocinética y farmacodinámica de los medicamentos pueden modificar su efecto, dando lugar a una respuesta pobre y por lo tanto un tratamiento inefectivo, o una respuesta exagerada lo que conlleva un riesgo alto de toxicidad. La presencia de polimorfismos en genes de transportadores, enzimas metabolizadoras o receptores podría implicar la necesidad o recomendación de un ajuste de dosis, sustitución y/o retirada de los medicamentos. Debido a esto, conocer qué evidencia existe en relación a la farmacogenética de los medicamentos de mayor consumo es de gran interés para los farmacéuticos comunitarios.OBJETIVO: identificar los medicamentos más consumidos en España y determinar la evidencia científica existente en cuanto al efecto que la farmacogenética tiene en ellos.MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: se identificaron los 15 grupos de medicamentos más consumidos en España (clasificados por subgrupo terapéutico, ACT4) en base al último informe anual disponible de la Prestación Farmacéutica en el Sistema Nacional de Salud (2019).Para cada medicamento de dichos grupos se realizó una búsqueda de la evidencia científica disponible, en materia de farmacogenética, en las Guías Clínicas del CPIC y el DPWG y las anotaciones registradas en la base de datos sobre farmacogenética PharmGKB.RESULTADOS: los 15 subgrupos terapéuticos más dispensados en farmacia comunitaria en España en el 2019 sumaron el 48 % de todos los medicamentos dispensados. De ellos, 8 subgrupos disponen de guías clínicas publicadas de dosificación basada en farmacogenética (Antiulcerosos: inhibidores de la bomba de protones; Hipolipemiantes: inhibidores de la HMG CoA reductasa; Inhibidores de la agregación plaquetaria, excluyendo heparina. (AU)

Relación del síndrome de ojo seco y consumo de fármacos que lo incluyen como reacción adversa / Relationship between dry eye syndrome and the use of drugs that include it as an adverse reaction

INTRODUCCIÓN: el síndrome de ojo seco (SOS) es una enfermedad multifactorial de las lágrimas y la superficie ocular, diversos factores de riesgo predisponen a padecerlo, entre ellos el consumo de ciertos medicamentos. El test OSDI (Ocular Surface Disease Index) validado al castellano, ha demostrado ser una herramienta fiable y sencilla para el diagnóstico del SOS.OBJETIVO: determinar si existe relación entre el SOS y el consumo de fármacos cuya RAM incluyen SOS.Establecer cuál es la influencia de los FR para el SOS en los pacientes estudiados y el SOS.MATERIAL Y MÉTODO: se realizó un estudio observacional descriptivo transversal en dos farmacias comunitarias de Salamanca entre octubre-2020 a enero-2021, utilizando un muestreo consecutivo simple que incluyo a 75 pacientes mayores de edad que acudan a las FC participantes a retirar medicación, sin dificultad de comprensión y que acepten participar firmando el consentimiento informado. Se recogieron los siguientes datos: edad, sexo, situación laboral, tiempo visión de pantallas consumo de alcohol y tabaco, enfermedad ocular, patologías, tratamiento farmacológico, además se realizó el test OSDI. Para las variables cuantitativas se realizó un estudio de tendencia central, media y desviación estándar, análisis de frecuencias para las cualitativas. Un análisis bivariante para comparar los grupos de ojo seco normal-leve, moderado y severo respecto del resto de variables. Se utilizó el test chi-cuadrado, Pearson para variables cualitativas y t-Student para la cuantitativas. Se realizó un análisis de regresión logística multinomial cuando se trataron los resultados del OSDI como variable continua. (AU)

Mean glandular dose in the mammary gland and dose of radiation in the thyroid gland and lens in women with and without breast implants during different modalities of mammography.

There have always been concerns about the secondary effects of diagnostic methods that use ionizing radiation. During mammography, the parameters to be concerned about are the mean glandular dose and the scatter dose. We evaluated the dose of radiation to the breast, thyroid gland, and lens in digital mammography in women with and without implants, in tomosynthesis in women with and without implants, and in contrast-enhanced mammography. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 212 women with and without disease who were attended at the Centro Clínico de Estereotaxia, CECLINES, in Caracas, Venezuela, between June 2017 and August 2017; the women were classified into five groups according to the mammographic modality used to evaluate them and whether or not they had implants. The statistical analysis included descriptive statistics for the study population. We used the Mann-Whitney U to compare the mean glandular dose and dose in the thyroid gland and lens between groups. RESULTS: The mean glandular dose and the dose of radiation received in the thyroid and lens were within the acceptable range. In a few exceptions, the mean glandular dose per view was slightly higher than 3 mGy. The scatter dose to the thyroid gland and the lens during mammography has a very small contribution to the annual dose equivalent. CONCLUSION: The mean glandular dose and the scatter dose to the thyroid gland and lens delivered during tomosynthesis and 2D mammography in women with implants were higher than those delivered during other mammographic techniques in women without implants.

Evidence of a shared binding site for Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa toxins in Cnaphalocrocis medinalis cadherin.

Insect midgut cadherins function as receptors and play critical roles as protein receptors of insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins used as biopesticides and in Bt transgenic crops worldwide. Here, we cloned and characterized the full-length midgut cadherin (CmCad) cDNA from the rice leaffolder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis), a destructive pest of rice in many Asian countries. Expression of recombinant proteins corresponding to the extracellular domain of CmCad allowed testing binding of Cry proteins. Results from in vitro ligand blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays supported that the extracellular domain of CmCad contains regions recognized by both Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa. Molecular modelling and docking simulations indicated that binding to both Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa is localized primarily within a CmCad motif corresponding to residues T1417-D1435. A recombinant CmCad protein produced without residues T1417-D1435 lacked binding to Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa, confirmed our modelling predictions that CmCad has a shared Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa binding site. The potential existence of a shared binding region in CmCad suggests that caution should be taken when using combinations of Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa in pyramided transgenic rice, as their combined use could speed the evolution of resistance to both toxins.

Tissue and salinity specific Na+/Cl- cotransporter (NCC) orthologues involved in the adaptive osmoregulation of sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus).

Two orthologues of the gene encoding the Na+-Cl- cotransporter (NCC), termed ncca and nccb, were found in the sea lamprey genome. No gene encoding the Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter 2 (nkcc2) was identified. In a phylogenetic comparison among other vertebrate NCC and NKCC sequences, the sea lamprey NCCs occupied basal positions within the NCC clades. In freshwater, ncca mRNA was found only in the gill and nccb only in the intestine, whereas both were found in the kidney. Intestinal nccb mRNA levels increased during late metamorphosis coincident with salinity tolerance. Acclimation to seawater increased nccb mRNA levels in the intestine and kidney. Electrophysiological analysis of intestinal tissue ex vivo showed this tissue was anion absorptive. After seawater acclimation, the proximal intestine became less anion absorptive, whereas the distal intestine remained unchanged. Luminal application of indapamide (an NCC inhibitor) resulted in 73% and 30% inhibition of short-circuit current (Isc) in the proximal and distal intestine, respectively. Luminal application of bumetanide (an NKCC inhibitor) did not affect intestinal Isc. Indapamide also inhibited intestinal water absorption. Our results indicate that NCCb is likely the key ion cotransport protein for ion uptake by the lamprey intestine that facilitates water absorption in seawater. As such, the preparatory increases in intestinal nccb mRNA levels during metamorphosis of sea lamprey are likely critical to development of whole animal salinity tolerance.